Elements of Art and their importance in interior decoration

The elements of art are the key components of a work of art. It is the artist’s decision in how they want to put them to use. Each element is very important to a piece of art, but some are stressed more than the others. When looking at a work of art, which elements do you notice? What kind of mood does it create?

To understand or to create a work of art the following basic art elements are essential i.e. Line, shape and form, color,  texture,  pattern,  light  and  space. These elements aid the designer when creating a visual environment and are often referred to as tools.

All these can be applied to interior planning and furnishings. Art elements serve as tools in conveying fundamental ideas in painting and in sculpture and also in creating objects which meet material needs of mankind – architecture, home decoration, handicraft and industrial, commercial and related arts.

Elements of art are followed according to principles of design to attain the three objectives of interior design.

Line: A very important element of art is line. It is the basic design element. A line is a series of connected points. Line is having movement, creates other shapes and forms; and is one-dimensional. One can’t imagine a work of art with any use of lines. Whether it is a drawing, painting or sculpture, lines are important.

Line works in a design in the following ways:

a) Directing: Line creates movement by leading the eye up and down, side to side or around the interiors. Line may be straight, curved or bent, horizontal, diagonal or vertical; or may be a combination of all these directions.

b) Dividing: Line acts as an edge between parts of an interior or a garment by dividing the area it passes through. It defines shape and can divide or connect shapes and parts.

c) Psychological effect: There are different types of lines and each line implies different feelings.

d) Optical illusion: Lines may cause visual distortions. Depending on the skill of the designer, these effects may conceal the structural problems in interiors or exaggerate them. For ex: vertical lines create the illusion of height, elegance and slimness because they lead the eye up and down, while horizontal lines emphasize shortness and width because of their side to side movement.

Use of lines in Interior design:

Vertical lines: These are lines of height, strength, masculinity, positiveness, alertness, spiritual, boldness, elegance and divinity. Usually found in doorways, hanging curtains, cabinets, pillars, seat back of chair and most other furniture. These lines are seen in the exterior of a building, where columns are used. Persons standing i.e., straight body forms vertical line. It symbolizes attention and readiness for action. It suggests life and activity. Ex: Columns in the exterior of a building.

Horizontal lines:  Suggests rest and repose, steadiness, solidity, strength, negative, passive and duration, calm and earthy. When person lies down, he is resting or sleeping. In architecture – these lines used which rest on vertical lines, which are on vertical lines, which are stronger. If these horizontal lines are not used in architecture vertical lines become tiresome. Interest can be created by combination of these two lines. Room -vertical lines of wall and horizontal line of ceiling, table tops, floor borders, carpets etc. These lines are often seen in cornices, dados, bookshelves, and long, low pieces of straight-lined furniture. Additional horizontal lines in a room design are supplied by table tops, sofas, furniture and furnishings.

Diagonal lines: Persons bend forward to run or to pull things. A diagonal line suggests decided movement, a feeling of action or force. These suggest interest, dramatic effect, restlessness and sometimes indecisiveness. Right to left diagonal lines represent ascending quality, optimism and joy while left to right diagonal lines represent descending quality, pessimism, accidents, falling, energetic, youthful and misery. These lines are evident in slanting ceilings, staircases, and gothic arches. Too many diagonals may create a feeling of unrest. Diagonal lines are evident in slanting ceilings, staircases, sloping furniture.

Curved lines:  In relaxation and play the body takes positions that are curved, so curved line seems gracious and flexible. Full curves are active, forceful and feminine while soft curves are passive, gentle, feminine, smooth and youthful. They are found in doorway arches, drapery swags, rounded and curved furniture and so forth. Curved furniture can be used in interior architectural elements, such as counters and fixtures.

Angular/zigzag lines: These are a series of connected diagonals- erratic, intense, abrupt, insecurity, confusion, agitation, fun and busy. Some times show forcefulness, dynamism and excitement.

Perpendicular lines: These are conflicting, disturbing lines and attract attention.

Converging lines: These give weight, older look and dragging effect.

Diverging lines: These are youthful, uplifting and light.

Wavy lines: These represent feminity, sensuality, gentleness, excitement, power, security and grace.

Lines should be carefully considered when designing the interior spaces of a room or a home. It has many properties and can do many things for a room or composition. Line is unlimited in its characteristics. It can be static and dead, a state represented by a line lying in a horizontal position, or line can be alive and fun of movement.

Types of Line arrangement:

Lines of opposition: These are represented by two straight lines meeting to form a right angle. It implies violence, between two opposing forces. Though it is severe, it is simplest. Ex – Picture frame, ceiling border, furniture.

Lines of repetition: Are an easily recognized form of harmony and indicates strength. Lines repeated at intervals seem less violent. Ex. Rug of room size repeating the shape of room.

Lines of contradiction:  These are sharp, as when lines cuts corner of right angle, harsh lines, abrupt, not pleasing. Architecturally it is valuable in cutting down spaces. When a long table is placed across a corner gives the effect of blocking off a section of the room.  A table placed in the corner of room diagonally makes the room look smaller. The slanted line cutting off the angle between the wall and the ceiling tends to lower the room height. When the same line in the form of a long table is placed diagonally across a corner give the effect of blocking of a section of a room. Ex. Tie back curtains.

Lines of transition: Are always better even though their placement is similar to that of contradiction. Favorite lines, More graceful and subtle, as they are curved and shaped. It is more pleasant.  Ex -Curtains.

In interior decoration straight lines are considered intellectual rather than emotional and classic than romantic and severe and masculine. Vertical lines tend to increase height. Horizontal lines give more width.

Too much line movement in a room tends toward instability. Furniture should be static, and curves should be restrained. A room completely decorated in curved lines is tiresome, and too many horizontal lines may be overpowering. A careful balance of line is essential to the feeling of comfort and harmony in a room.

Use of lines in interiors

Shape and Form:

Shape is measurable, identifiable contours of an object. Shape is two-dimensional in character and can be considered as flat plane. Without shape, space is form less. Shape is the outer edge or contour of an area surrounded by a closed line.

Two types of classifications are there.

1. A. Natural shapes: These represent softness and irregularity eg; ellipse, crescent, heart which are found in nature and living things.
   
   
   B. Geometric shapes: These represent hardness, regular and rectangular eg; circles, triangles, squares. The straight lines of squares and rectangles appear stable, confident and powerful, while the sharper angles and diagonal lines of triangles, diamonds seem unstable but exciting.
   
2. A. Rectilinear shapes: These are also called orthogonal created by lines, plane and volumes positioned at 90 degrees to another. Non-orthogonal and non-curvilinear geometrics are referred to as angular. These include rectangles and squares. Too many rectangles and squares may produce monotony. Qualities include clarity, stability, and certainty. Pure, strong and its own quality of beauty, easily handles, fit snugly together, sturdy, unity and rhythm. Eg; houses, rooms, beds, tables, TV sets, sofas, chairs, benches etc.
   B. Angular shapes: These include triangles and pyramids. These are dynamic; introduce a note of variety and surprise. Most stable forms, still express greater flexibility by changing the angles. These attract and hold attention as they imply motion. Eg; sloping rooflines, triangular/corner tables. Triangle, rhombus and other diagonal shapes may be used for flooring materials, furniture and accessories, providing a dynamic effect.
   C. Curved shapes: These include crescents, hearts, ellipses, circles, spheres, cones, cylinders etc. These bring together the lively combination of continuity and constant change. These remind flowers, trees, clouds and our bodies. Curved shapes suggest feminity and confidence. These are most conservative and economical forms and have an unequaled unity. Eg; circular rooms, domed ceilings, curved stairways, bowls, vases, stool etc.
   Curved forms are constant, unifying and pleasing. When used in the interior environment, curved forms may be dramatic, like a sweeping staircase or domed ceiling. Curved forms are also used for accessories such as pieces of pottery plates, lamps, round tables or sculptures. Curves may give relief and variety to a room where a predominance of angular and rectilinear forms.

It is the characteristic that gives individual identity to form. Physical shape is determined by the outward boundaries of an object. The boundaries refer to the outer contour or outline. Without shape, space is form less. Without the possibility of giving shape even to outer space, our visual concept of it would be form less. Shapes are two types: Natural, Geometric. Natural shapes are characterized by softness and irregularity. Man made are distinguished by hardness, and appear regular and rectangular. All living rooms have similarities in form, but not all have the same shapes. Shape is specific identity.
Form: We live with and move around form. Form takes account of shape and indicates the whole idea- both the internal structure and external parts integrated into the whole. Lines give form its particular shape. Ex – furniture, flower vase. Form occupies space and it is counter part of space. Both are inseparables – as form gives space whatever shape it has. Form suggests solidity and enclosure. Space suggests boundlessness. Form constitutes the physical and spatial structure of an entity.
The term form is generally considered to apply to two dimensional areas or shapes as well as to three dimensional volumes of masses. Form is the most important element in home planning. Without beauty of form, excellent colour, texture and decoration are of no avail. Two essentials of good should be mentioned here. Form of an object should suit its function and that the form of an object should be strongly influenced by the material from which it is made.

Forms made of straight lines are severe, classic, traditional in design when compared to form with curved/irregular lines. Curved lines are feminine, romantic, graceful.

Forms used in interior design are – geometric shapes: spheres, cubes, pyramids, cylinder, rectangle, square in lamp shades, basis of furniture legs, dining tables, centre tables, chairs. Combining different forms can create interest in interiors. But too much ornamentation can disguise form and material. Harmony of form is essential in assembling interior furnishings.

Two essentials of good form/rules given by Louis Sullivan:

1. Form of an object should suit its function

Ex: outdoor furniture – weather proof

2. Form of an object should be strongly influenced by the material

from which it is made. Ex. Furniture – Wood, Vase-brass

Forms are two types: Natural and manmade forms are existent in our visual world. Natural: eg; animals, vegetables, fruits, foliage etc.

Manmade: eg. Painting, sculpture, music, building etc.

Natural and man made forms are existent in our visual world – Natural – animal, vegetable or mineral. Though each natural form is the same in its fundamental character, each is distinguished by individual traits or features. The human body is made up of feet and legs, a torso, arms and legs, neck and head. It is applied to two dimensional areas or shapes as well as to three dimensional volumes. The body form is recognized as human even when some of the parts are missing.

Man made forms: Painting, sculpture, drama, poetry, novel, music, buildings, interiors etc.

Form always has content: the internal/unseen, yet felt component of external form; form can never exist without content. Form is physical, content is interpretation. Form in nature is always thought to be beautiful. When we look at such a form, we don’t wish to change it by addition or deletion; we see the form as whole and we accept it as complete. Form gives identity to space without form, space is amorphous unstructured and boundless. Form makes space measurable.

Size: It is a physical magnitude, extent, bulk and dimension of something. Sizes should be kept in proportion.

Texture: The word texture comes from a Latin word meaning to weave. It refers to the qualities that are perceptible through the sense of touch by feeling them or perceiving the tactile quality of an object. It refers to the surface quality of objects – the quality that not only can be seen and touched but also can be sensed through memory. Eg: the roughness of sandstone, the softness of a deep pile rug, the smoothness of glass, and the shininess of growing leaves all produce a peculiar sensation because of previous association with these textures.  Every material used in an interior has texture. Fingers are the main implements that tell us how smooth or rough, soft or hard, a material is. Dull or rough textures such as wool, wood/stone absorb light. Shiny or smooth texture such as satin polished metal or glass reflects light.

Texture should have something in common or be a pleasant contrast. They may have an air of informality eg: zinnias in a copper bowl, express dainty formality for a reception eg: Tulips in a glass container are placed on an organdy cloth.

In furniture arrangement, oak and mahogany furniture can’t be combined since oak suggests strength and mahogany suggests elegance. Mahogany requires delicate textures like fine silk, satin, velvet – roses, deep pile rugs, light weight brass ware etc. whereas with oak, coarser textures such as tapestry, large patterned linen, iron should be used. Marble with brick/stone do not go together.

Texture can be visual, tactile and audible. Certain textures can be perceived only through vision. Eg; quilting, smocking, embroidery, printing etc. While roughness, softness, coarseness can be felt by fingers. The friction created by the surfaces rubbing over each other can be heard. Eg; crisp rustle of silk (scroop). Every object has self texture; secondly, texture may be applied though various finishes like polishing and applied decoratively. Eg; painting, printing, etching etc.

Some textural qualities are:

Texture alters colours. – Rough texture or surface makes colour appear darker as it absorbs light. Smooth texture/surface with shine reflects more light and seems paler.

1. When rooms are small and have few windows, smoother textures should be used.
2. Larger rooms with more windows and open spaces can utilize the rougher textures with more grace.
3. Select surface textures that suit the overall furnishing and decorating style.
4. Make use of shiny or reflective surfaces to increase the apparent size of a small room. Work with matt, soft textures to make a large room seem smaller and more intimate.
5. Use a heavily textured material to hide a poor, uneven surface.
6. Exploit the textural values of translucent or coarsely woven fabrics, allowing them to filter the natural or artificial light in a room.

Space:

We can live and move in space. Total space is divided into floor space, wall space, ceiling space and smaller areas of space in open shelves, on table and desk tops.

Space is defined as emptiness, void or interval between things, most vital plastic element in interior design. It is the area found within an enclosure.

Space suggests the possibility of change, freedom to move bodily, visually or psychogically until we collide with or are averted by a barrier.

We live with and move around form, but we live and move in space.

Furniture designers should consider the following spatial relationships.

• Spatial relationships between people and furniture
• Spatial composition of furniture and interior space
• Spatial relationships between various components of furniture
• Spatial extensions based upon the geometrics of furniture

Scale:

It refers to the size of objects – small, big, medium, light, heavy in relation to the surrounding and in relation to the people when proportions are satisfactory then relationship is pleasing between all parts of unit. It can be relationship between colour, texture and size, shape and pattern. Scale is the relationship between sizes within an object and those of other objects used with it eg: a very small objects never look so small as when it is placed near a very large one. They would be said to be out of scale.

Scale  is applied in different ways:

• Each article must be in scale with the room containing it and also with the other articles in the room eg: bulky furniture crowd small or average room – In small room use very few large pieces of furniture with inconspicuous colour and pattern.
• Fabrics too have scale – they are grouped into 3 –coarse (large scale) and fine – small scale. Fabrics show scale in pattern as well as texture. Large figures are suitable for large pieces of furniture in large rooms and small pattern are consistent with small pieces of furniture for use in small or average size room. In small room we should use very few large pieces of furniture with inconspicuous colour and pattern, otherwise apparent size of room decreases.
• Various structural parts of each article must be in scale with one another and with the whole. Eg: 2 chairs of same dimensions appear different if arms and legs of one are heavy and other is light.
• Avoid large lamps on small table, large bouquets in small vases, small pictures on a large wall, tiny objects on large tables and small women using large designs.
  Visually space can be increased by –

• Mirror on one wall of the interior
• Scenery – picture wall
• By having see-through curtains

 Size:

The physical dimensions, proportions, magnitude or extent of an object is called as size. Size is used to fix the standard of a conventional relative measure of dimension as for shoes, gloves and other articles made up for sale, to adjust anything to a required dimension; to order food or drink from bakery etc.

Pattern:

Pattern refers to extrinsic surface enrichment and applies to both two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. It is created by the use of line, form, space, light and colour.  In interior decoration it is well to use the word pattern rather than decorative design or ornamental design, because, it is opposite to plain. Surface patterns contribute liveliness and interest to a room. Many interiors lack liveliness and interest when it is plain. Pattern should be used at least on 1/4 of the total surface area. If walls and floor are plain, then draperies and 2/3 of upholstery fabrics may be patterned.

When a two dimensional scheme of ornamentation is related rhythmically, pattern is achieved.

Pattern is the planned repetition of a motif. The repetition of form, shape and outline is a necessary component of pattern. Pattern can be the result of structure. It is of two types.

a. Integral pattern: It depends on structural process. It is also called structural pattern. It is produced from the essential character of a material, the manner in which the material is employed, as well as its shape and finish. The sources of integral patterns are both natural- also called as fortuitous i.e. by chance pattern is created for eg; on marble and wood natural designs/veins created and manmade – is called as factitious which means by external effort the design is created for eg; woven fabrics.

Walls or floors of stone, brick or wood make patterns as a result of the manner in which the materials are laid down. Wood laid in squares makes a repeating pattern called parquet. Eg: weaving processes of many fabrics like damask, brocade, gingham, pochampally etc. create particular patterns.

b. Surface pattern: It is applied to a finished woven material for decorative effect or embellishment hence it is called applied pattern. Surface patterns derive both from sources such as nature in abstract shapes called motifs – are repeated at regular intervals along the surface. These can be applied by hand or by machines. The size of the motifs can vary because their size doesn’t affect the actual structure of the material. Fabric and wall paper are the most common materials to receive surface patterning by printing.

There are four general types of motifs or units of design – naturalistic, stylized, geometric and abstract.

Naturalistic motif: Look like pictures, usually of flowers, fruits, animals sceneries. Such motifs are seldom suitable for the decoration of utilitarian articles.

Stylized Motif: Do not look realistic of natural objects. Usually the lines are simplified and conventionalized and sometimes they are distorted. The most fashionable stylized motifs present in nature are ferns and other leaves. Patterns are sometimes made of a combination of stylized and geometric motifs

Geometric Motif: These based on pure forms of the circle, rectangle, triangle, stripes, dots, checks. They are the safest design procurable for untrained customers.

Abstract Motif: These are vague in character, and have no definite shape Ex. Modern art, marble print etc.

Beauty in surface pattern is produced by:

• Excellent design in individual motif or units: Motif is one which decides the main theme hence it should be chosen carefully.
• Fine arrangement of the units in a repeated pattern: Beauty in pattern not only on having well designed motifs but also on arranging them well. The units may be grouped in borders, stripes, checks, diamonds or other regular or irregular plans.
• Definite character of personality: The most interesting patterns are those that have definite expressive quality. A design may have a feeling of dignity, quaintness, speed, restlessness or whatever quality. The able designer wishes it to have the character of a pattern is determined by the direction of the lines and by the sizes, the shapes and relation of spaces.
• Honest in technique: Proper regard for the medium ensures honesty in technique. For eg; patterns for textiles should look cloth like. The process by which the pattern is applied to an article should also influence its design. A pattern to be carved in wood is necessarily bolder than one to be painted on silk.
• Evidence of joy of the designer: this quality is seen most commonly in the work of children, peasants and primitive people. Their work often has naïve, charm, playfulness, and directness. It is opposite of the work i.e. intellectually perfect, overdone and laboured.
• Harmony of line between an article and its decoration: The lines of the pattern should usually follow the lines of the article that it decorates, for eg; a circle fits better than a square on a round plate.

References

1. Anna Hong Rutt (1969). Home Furnishing, Wiley Eastern private limited, New Delhi.
2. Harriet Goldstein And Veita Goldstein (1954). Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., INC
3. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970). The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
4. parimalam, A. Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008). A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
5. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu (2009). Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi

Assignment

1. Collect pictures from inside outside magazines to represent different elements used in interiors through furniture, furnishings, door and window designs.

Essay Questions

1. Explain the effects of lines in interiors and home furnishing.
2. What is texture? Explain the use of texture in home furnishing.
3. Explain elements of art in interiors with example

Short Answers

1. Types of lines
2. Space as an element of art
3. Use of patterns
4. Effective use of lines in decoration.

DESIGN- TYPES, FEATURES AND REQUIREMENTS

Design is defined as any arrangement of lines, forms, colours and textures. It involves the problem of choosing these forms and colours and then arranging them. The term design is used in many ways to convey different meanings. It is associated with the creation of a knife, costume, poster, bridge, furniture piece, political campaign etc. Suppose we consider designing of a chair, first think why we want to design one, we have ideas about the way the people’s backs should be supported and think that all existing designs are poor. Design is the process of accomplishing some end. In broad sense, the word ‘Design’ implies selection and organization for some specific purpose or intention. Webster defines design as “the arrangement of details which make up a work of art”.  Encyclopedia Britannica  defines design as “the arrangement of lines or forms which make up the plan of a work of art with special regard to the proportions, structure, movement and beauty of line of the whole.

Design is selecting and arranging of materials with two aims – Order and beauty.

• Order: Organisation of structure and order implies a feeling of unity – of oneness
• Beauty: Showing character through an idea by an individual

In visual art, the designer works with lines, forms, colours and textures. Elements are selected and arranged to suit a purpose, which might be to create something that is purely functional, or purely ornamental or both functional and beautiful. In doing so the designer expresses various ideas, moods, or values, and such expressions evoke some response. In musical composition, the notes and tones are selected and arranged to create a pattern of sounds that will have a particular effect.

Design involves:

• Type of line – straight, slightly curved, curved.
• Direction of line – vertical, oblique or horizontal
• Shape – formed by lines and direction such as square, diamond, circle etc.
• Size – depending on the degree small, smaller, smallest, big, bigger, biggest
• Texture – fine, medium, coarse]
• Colour – red, blue, yellow
• Light – artificial, natural
• Form – natural, manmade

Definition Of Design

Design is defined as any arrangement of line, color, space, value and texture of an object in space, or a drawing of it on a piece of paper. It involves the proper choice of materials, forms, colors in arranging them aesthetically and tastefully, taking care of the elements of art and the principles of design.

Design is the planned arrangement of basic elements and principles that work together to create an image, object or environment.

Factors in creating a design:

1. Creativity
2. Different needs – economic, physical, psychological etc.
3. Material’s availability
4. Locality where the design created and used
5. Tools and processes used in the development of the design

Types of design:

Designs are classified into two kinds: Structural and Decorative

Structural design: Structural design is the design made by the line, form, colour, and texture of an object, whether it is the object itself, in space or a drawing of that object worked out on paper. It is far more important than decorative design because it is essential to every object. It mainly concentrates on function for which it is intended and also called functional design. It relates to the size and shape of an object; the design is an integral part of the structure itself. Eg: pyramids of Egypt are a structural design because they expose the stone blocks from which they were made. It relates to size and shape of an object reflected in the materials.

Requirements of Good structural design: The most important phrase of the art world today is ‘form follows function’. If an object is intended for use, the requirements of its structural design are fourfold.

• In addition to being beautiful, it is suited to its purpose/Suitability: The purpose for which any item is intended should immediately be recognizable. A salad bowl should look like an article to contain something and not like a depressed bouquet of flowers.
• That it be simple/ simplicity: Whether the structure itself is to stand as the finished product or is only the supporting element for decoration, it should be kept simple. Eg: a room with too many or poorly placed openings, arches, and niches will seldom be pleasing.
• That it be well proportioned/ good proportion: Any object that is structurally well proportioned will be intrinsically pleasing, whether it remains plain or decorated.
• That it is suited to the material of which it is made and to the processes which will be followed in making it. Appropriateness of materials: Different materials lend themselves to different objects and construction methods. Glass may be blown and intricately decorated by skilled craftspeople and molded plastic chairs may be turned out by an assembly-line method.
• That it expresses individuality and thinking.

If all these are fulfilled object will give a lasting satisfaction

Decorative design: It is the surface enrichment of a structural design. Any lines, colors or a material that have been applied to a structural design for the purpose of adding a richer quality to it constitutes its decorative design. Thus decoration is luxury of design. Eg; etching, carving, appliqué work, printing, painting, embroidery etc. It relates to the ornamentation of the basic structure, which may be achieved through the selection and placement of color, line, and texture. Decorative design may add or distract the original beauty of an object. Added surface decoration would mean little and might actually detract from the original artistic quality of the textile. Ornaments as surface decoration may be achieved by line, color or texture and should offer some contrast to the surface it decorates. The possibilities of line ornamentation are infinite in etching, painting, bas-relief, illuminated manuscripts, printed chintzes or even grille work.

Requirements of a Good Decorative Design:

A good decorative design should fulfill the following considerations:

• The decoration should be in moderation
• The decoration should be placed at structural points, and it should strengthen the shape of the object.
• There should be enough background space to give an effect of simplicity and dignity to the design
• Surface pattern should cover the surface quietly
• The background space should be as carefully studied and as beautiful as the patterns placed against them.
• The decoration should be suitable for the material and for the service it must give. Good decorative design is always adapted, conventionalized or stylized to suit the material for which it is used.

Different types of decorative design:

Naturalistic/realistic/photographic Design:  

In this motif is reproduced from nature in its natural form. It represents designs from nature – flowers, leaves, fruits, animals and landscapes. Motifs should be realistic. It suits on china, fabrics and the colours are related to nature. It should be used in discretion. It is appropriate in children’s rooms, for draperies, upholstery and wall paper.

Stylized/conventional design:

In this the motif is taken from nature but is adapted to suit the shape or purpose of the object to be decorated. Lines are simplified and conventionalized. Drawn on inspiration from natural forms, but it is not true representative. Flowers, leaves, human and animals figures (animated designs), are some of the common themes. They are simplified, exaggerated, re-arranged or even distorted to achieve the purpose of design. Natural aspects can be emphasized out of proportion to make some particular features more pronounced. Colours may also follow an unconventional mood. It is superior to naturalistic.

Geometric design:

These are made up of geometric motifs such as stripes, plaids and zigzags. These are based on geometric forms like circles, squares, triangles, checks and dots. Squares and rectangles have stability due to their flat bases.

Circles and ovals have instability as they have no true bases. These are the safest designs for untrained designer.

Abstract Design:

Motifs which do not have nature as their source but are combinations of lines, as checks, plaids, stripes, or those based on geometric based are classed as abstract. It is based on geometric forms and implies an element of impressionism, dignity and greater freedom than is found in geometric design. When no object is represented with life-like or realistic exactness but is expressed by pure design, it is abstract which is non-representational. Abstract allows the juxtaposition or the alignments and grouping of parts of the design which have no literal representation as such; still the design makes an impact on the onlooker’s mind as it doesn’t suffer from any taboos. In this recognizable elements are transformed into nonrepresentational design.

References

1. Anna Hong Rutt (19730). Home Furnishing, Wiley Eastern private limited, New Delhi.
2. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954). Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., INC.
3. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970). The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
4. P.Parimalam, A. Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008). A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi

Assignment 

1. Observe different types of decorative designs used on bed sheets and curtain materials and label them.
2. Evaluate flower vases and trays in terms of fulfilling the requirements of a structural design.

Essay Questions 

1. Explain the objectives in creative experience.
2. Explain the types and requirements of designs.
3. Explain the different types of decorative design.
4. Explain the Importance of good taste in interiors

Short notes

1. Naturalness
2. Modernism
3. Motifs

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN – AND THEIR APPLICATION TO ENRICH THE INTERIORS

IMPORTANCE OF PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN:

A home, whether big or small, traditional or contemporary, in the city or in rural setup needs can acquire a right style for living and look practical, attractive and also match to the needs of the user. To create a tastefully designed interior, one needs to have an artistic skill, knowledge of principles, sensitivity to people and surroundings and imagination.

The selection and arrangement of the components of design are judged on the basis of principles of art – harmony, balance, proportion, rhythm, and emphasis to achieve the objectives.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CREATION OF INTERIORS ARE:

• Personal likes and dislikes
• Users needs
• Materials on hand
• Place or location
• Tools and process used for creation

Principles of design:

Principles of design are not formulas for creating beauty, but they do help in determining why an object is artistically good or poor. Balance, Rhythm, Harmony Proportion, and Emphasis are the five major principles of design, because they play a major role in designing the interiors or even be it in assessing a design itself. A designer should apply the element of art and principles of design to the art in trying to attain the objectives of creativity to enhance beauty.

BALANCE:

It is the quality in any composition, which gives a sense of rest or repose. Balance is defined as equilibrium. The restful effect to the mind and eye is created by grouping the objects in such a way that there is equilibrium of forces on each side from the center. In nature we find objects like Rock of Gibraltar, sand dunes, trees etc. where balance exists in four dimensions – time, length, breadth and width. In dealing with interiors, we deal with visual weight of architecture and furnishings. Here the restful effect is created by grouping shapes and colours around a center in such a way that there are equal attractions on each side of that center. Balance must be obtained in colour, texture, pattern and light as well as weight, balance of areas. Balance in art can be explained as simply as balance in weights. See-saw is a perfect example for this.

When two objects of equal weight placed at equidistance from the central point, it is formal balance. When objects are identical it is called as bisymmetrical balance and if they are un-identical, it is referred as occult balance. The balance is informal, when un-identical objects are placed at un-equal distance, but carry equal attention.  The visual weight of anything is determined by the psychological impact it makes on us. Objects of large size, bright colours, unusual shapes, and elaborate details arouse interest and seek attention. Where as small, the somber, the harmonious objects settle into background. The bright and somber effect can be matched. For ex: a small spot of bright colour can balance a large grayed area.

Formal or symmetrical Balance: It has been seen that the center of the space under consideration is the point around which all attractions must be balanced. If objects are alike or are or are equally forceful in appearance, they will attract the same amount of attraction, and therefore should be equidistant from the center. This kind of balance is formal balance or symmetrical balance. Formal balance is quiet, dignified and gives a sense of precision. Symmetrical balance tends to stress on the center, creating a logical focal point for something one wish to emphasize. Formal balance is called bisymmetrical when the objects on either side of the center are identical, and it is called as obvious balance when the objects are unalike but are equal in their power of attention.

Informal or asymmetrical Balance: If objects do not attract the same attention, they must be placed at different distances from the center. This is informal or asymmetrical or occult balance. Informal balance is more subtle than formal balance and affords greater opportunity for variety in arrangements. Its success depends upon training the eye to recognize a restful composition. More intimacy can be felt in informal arrangements. 

Radial Balance: It results when all parts are balanced and repeated around the center as in the spoke of a wheel ex: U.S Capital, Saint Peter’s Church, Rome, Temple ceilings in central court. In home it is found in the floor design in the central hall, ornamental plates and bowls, lighting fixture, textiles patterns (Kalamkari work), All round flower arrangement. Radial balance is less important than formal and informal, but makes a distinct contribution in many small objects.

Application of Balance in Homes: 

Balance can be applied in Exterior architecture, flower arrangement, furniture arrangement, grouping of accessories. The type of balance present in the exteriors of house helps to determine the emotional effects created. Formal balance in a room creates an air of formality. It is not suitable for a small room or youngster’s room. Furniture arrangement calls for balance in arrangement. Halves of each room should be equally weighed with furniture or windows or doors. Opposite walls should be balanced against one other.. In placing furnishings, the architectural openings must be given due consideration. Very often balance is created by having large piece of furniture on one wall of a room as a balance to opening on an opposite wall. Large pieces of furniture should be placed first with regard to balancing centers of interest in the room. The smaller movable objects should then be arranged so that they will make a convenient group as well as balanced units. Well balanced wall have the same amount of attraction on both sides of its central line and on opposite walls. In arranging the room, if one side seems too heavy, it is necessary to add a brighter colour or a striking shape or simply more material to the weaker side, and keep adjusting until the whole room looks restful. Balance is influenced by texture, pattern or motif, daylight and artificial light factor and even shadow effects. While designing a home, it can be achieved by placing windows, doors, fireplace or other details around a visual center of the respective rooms. Other important factors are the relationship of large pieces to one another and to the background features of the room, the distribution of dark and light colours and the careful selection of textures.

RHYTHM:

Rhythm means a form of movement. “Rhythm means an easy, connected path along which the eye travels in an arrangement of lines, forms or colours”. So, Rhythm is related movement. In a plain area there is no eye movement; and there is no resting space. When pattern is introduced into a plain space, the eye begins to travel along the lines and colours so that movement is created. If the movement is organized and easy, it becomes rhythmic. If it becomes restless, distracted or too emphatic, it lacks good rhythm.

Rhythmic eye movement can be obtained through  

Goldstein H. and Goldstein V., have defined, Rhythm as a form of movement. It must be recognized that not all movements in design is rhythmic. Sometimes movement is distracting. Rhythm means an easy, connected path, along which the eye may travel in any arrangement of lines, forms or colors.

• Repetition of shapes
• Progression or gradation of sizes
• Continuous line movement and
• Radiation 

Repetition of shapes:

Repetition of lines, shapes, forms, colours and figured surfaces in a room are examples of rhythm by repetition. When a shape is regularly repeated at the proper intervals (movement is created carrying from one unit to the next and one do not know that they are separate unit. But rhythmic advancement makes it easy for eye to pass along entire length of space.

Carving lines in furniture and draperies are examples of rhythm by transitional lines. Bold patterns in either wall area or rug patterns do not give very pleasing effect to the eye. In other words, wall and floor coverings should be either plain or should have quite designs in order to serve as backgrounds for the other furnishings. More emphatic rhythmic movements should be reserved for smaller areas such as pictures. Contrasting lines or shapes in the background a room can create distracting movement that they make a poor background. If it is desired to create variety these should be repeated in small areas and patterns, with small areas and patterns with little contrast in light and dark values. Good proportion is important for the success of grouping. If intervals are too apart, it lacks rhythm.

• Regular: A regular rhythm occurs when the intervals between the elements, and often the elements themselves, are similar in size or length.
• Flowing: A flowing rhythm gives a sense of movement and is often visually more organic in nature.
• Progressive: A progressive rhythm shows a sequence of forms through progression of steps.

Practical application of rhythm through repetition:

1. Repeating dots, circles, squares or any shape with good spacing create pleasing effects.
2. Repeating a shape, a number of times gives an effect of repose.
3. Sometimes a shape which is difficult to use as a single unit in design, will be successful when it is repeated at close intervals.
   For ex: A set of butterfly motifs on a wall.

4. Exact repetition of a unit has a strongly integrated, clear and emphatic effect.
5. Repetition is used in an arrangement of group of photos and accessories, wall papers, rugs, textiles, architecture etc.

Progression of sizes:

Gradation in sizes also creates rhythmic eye movement. The art objects from small to large sizes can be grouped to divert the attention of eye to any focal point, for example – flying cranes, lined elephants. A regular progression of sizes may be satisfying Ex. Scallops on lace, (varied heights), set of utensils, or storage bins. etc., where objects of different sizes are involved. Progressing sizes create a rapid eye movement, but if it leads the eye to towards ceiling, and they can mislead our interest to wrong place of the room, and if a group of objects in which there is no variation in height, it may be monotonous. In order to avoid both extremes, one should use a series of varied heights.

Continuous line movement: Composition that shows rhythm through continued line. Flow of vertical or curve lines in window curtains, or valance can strengthen the lines in a room by its continuous line movement Ex. continuous line in the center of bottom border and repetition in the row of dots, and wavelike lines in open space like scallops in swag curtain or dress. Rhythm in this composition is so striking that that it produces the same sensation as a graceful dance.

In some design it is not always evident that any elements are repeated or that there is a progressive change from one part of the design to another and yet we have a sense of easy movement throughout the design. The related movement may be literally having breaks in the line, but spaces that are small enough so the eye still moves over to the next section of the line in the rhythmical manner.

Practical application or ways of achieving rhythm:

• Rhythm through radiation is a method of obtaining organized movement that grows out of a central point or axis. It may be observed in the diverging lines which form the pattern like that of a flower, leaves, shells etc. Radiating lines are used very commonly in designs for store display.
• Diverging lines sometimes do not tend to carry the eye smoothly from one part of a design to another; they are sometimes useful in creating a particular effect. Ex: Wheel motif on wall display in interiors, is very common.
• An arrangement in all the kinds of rhythmic movement may be observed with arrangements of lighting fixtures in interiors of the house, other handicrafts and also in exteriors through architecture and landscape.
• Rhythm is found in designs of floor tiles, wall papers and furnishings. In a room with quiet walls, the figured pattern of a drapery material may display a greater degree of rhythmic movement which is a pleasing effect.
• Rhythm through continuous line movement can be observed in the selection and arrangement of furniture, wall hangings or creative lines on the walls, suitable designs on the curtain or draperies. All these should be arranged in such a way that the eye travels from one to the other easily or rhythmically.
• Restful effect can also be gained through proper use of a blend of a variety of lines in a selective manner that ultimately gives a pleasant effect. The balance, proportion and scale needs to be thought in designing and arrangement.

Radiation

It is a method of obtaining organized movement. Radiation is the type of movement that grows out of a central point or axis. Commonly used store displays and in making designs for embroidery. Radial rhythm focuses the eye to move in a defined path. The design on floor, ceiling, and lamp shade, lines on shell are examples for radiation.

EMPHASIS:

Emphasis is the principle that directs us to have a center of interest in any arrangement, and a dominating idea or colour in any scheme. Though an arrangement may be well balanced, its proportion good, and its content in perfect harmony, it may still be dull and uninteresting because the arrangement lacks emphasis.

Emphasis is the art principle by which the eye is carried first to the most important thing in any arrangement, and from that point to every other detail in the order of its importance. Whenever any object is selected or arranged with reference to its appearance, this principle is used. When every corner of the house seeks equal attention for the best displays of objects or ideas, it is distracting. Emphasis can be achieved through arrangement, contrast or repetition. The tests for judgment of emphasis are simplicity and beauty. Success in interior decoration is dependent upon-

• What to choose to emphasize?
• How to emphasize?
• How much to emphasize? and
• Where to place this emphasis?

What to choose to emphasize?

There can be an impression of clarity in any arrangement of either it is a room, a house design, a picture or costume, the designer would find it hopeful to form a rather definite plan. In making the plan, he would classify his material and decide to arrange it according to what considered the most important and what is least.

How to Emphasize?

There are several means by which one may create emphasis or create attention and the most important of these are:

• By the placing or grouping of objects
• By the use of contrast of colours
• By using decoration
• By having sufficient background space around objects
• By contrasting of unusual lines, shapes or sizes

By placing or grouping of objects:

Grouping can be by having a clear understanding of domination and subordination. By identifying the principle group and the subordinate centers and arranging them to look like a unit, one could achieve less dominant centers, rather than competing centers. Subordination is accomplished through reserve; conspicuously patterned rugs or floor coverings in cool theme, results in chaos or confusion. Success in grouping will be when defining center of interest with adequate space around each group.

By the use of contrast of colours:

Since eye is quickly attracted by strong contrasts of light and dark or by contrasting colours, one of the most striking means of calling attention to any object is place it against a background with which it contrasts. If striking contrasts of light and dark are to be used in any decorative scheme of a considerable size, they should be tied together. This can be done by combining with them a large amount of intermediate values somewhere between the two extremes. The arrangement that shows equal amounts of light and dark would be confusing as two equal centers of interest. The final effect of a good composition should be that of a dark scheme accented with light scheme made interesting through its dark notes.

By using decoration:

Decoration should be done such a way the beauty of a structure be enhanced. The surface pattern should cover the surface quietly with very little contrast between light and dark values. One is constantly confronted with table linens, furnishing fabrics, wallpapers, rugs and carpets, flooring patterns that have surface pattern. . The two things that are of great importance in selecting surface patterns for background are value contrast and amount of plain surface around each. Occasionally one finds a highly decorated object made for no other purpose than to please a eye. If it is truly beautiful, it has reason to exist and one frequently uses such an object to lend emphasis, either through its colour or it pattern. Jewellary is an example of this type of emphasis on dress.

By having sufficient plain background space around objects

Certain schemes begin to produce peace of mind when one seen them a most welcome contrast to the feeling of confusion and unrest caused by the crowded arrangement. An object gains importance when it is separated from the things around it and is given enough plain space for a background when objects are placed close together they are seen as a group and not as a individual. Background should be less conspicuous than the objects to be seen against them. Plain walls and subtle accessory details, such as flowers, can be enjoyed fully in a setting with a plain background, such as a room with a serene or subtle colour. Repetition of lines, solid colours, pattern or texture can also emphasize the decoration but should be in subtle fashion.

By contrasting or unusual lines, shapes or sizes:

In order to discover how much force is there in anything unusual, glance quickly at a shop window or a table full of new books and their paper jackets and see what attracts first. The fist book to attract is checkerboard pattern or by dark blue and white book. Second one is brilliant orange, and the third an unusual head against a plain background. The others look nearly equal in attraction, in spite of different effect.

Distribution of Emphasis in a Room:

With the approximate amount of plain and pattern space in mind, the designer must decide where and how to distribute objects. Plain wall and floor is chosen more frequently for living room, because it affords an opportunity to make more individual choices in the small things. Patterned surface makes a poor background for objects against it. It is well to limit the amount of pattern in a room, one should decide where it will be enjoyed most and then subordinate the other objects in the room so that the pattern may be appreciated. It is desirable to have one principal center of interest in every room, but each wall should have its own focal point so that the room may be agreeable to look at from any position.

Emphasis in Table setting: The principle of emphasis is applied to the largest objects and to the smallest to the walls and to the vases, to the furniture and to the things to be used with it.  Foods look attractive and appetizing when it is garnished and arranged, hence more emphasis should be placed on table arrangement for the foods. But some foods are lacking sufficient contrast to make them appear appetizing and require the addition of some colour interest. The standard of good service is to place enough food on the plate or platter so that it appears adequate, but never over full. The rim of the dish or plate should be clear.

Emphasis in store displays:

In planning store displays, window decoration has three groups of viewers to attract – The people who cross street, people who pass in front of the window and those who stop to examine the display. For the first class, there should be one forceful effect to attract attention and make him to wish to cross the street to see the rest of the display. Those who are passing should be attracted by the big note or by the items of importance. For those who stop there, must be provided with more interesting details of goods available. All emphasis should be directed to arouse interest in the people and create desire to visit the shop.

The similar principles of emphasis can be applied for dress designing, advertisement, packaging etc.

Where to place emphasis?

The principles of design to be observed in mounting pictures or written mater are – shape harmony, balance and proportion. In a vertical oblong the bottom margin should be widest, the top next and sides narrow. For the horizontal oblong, the bottom should be the widest, the sides next and the top narrow. 

PROPORTION:

The principle of proportion underlies all other principles. The principle of proportion states that relations between parts of the same thing or between different things of the same group should be satisfying. So, proportion can be defined as the comparison of dimensions or distribution of forms and is the relationship in scale between one element and another or between a whole object and one of its parts. Differing proportions within a composition can relate to different kinds of balance or symmetry and can help establish visual weight and depth. The smaller elements seem to recede into the background while the larger elements come to the front.

The principle of proportion is sometimes called the “law of relationships.” There are three practical problems in proportion which con­front us in everyday tasks. They are- How to achieve arrangements which will hold the interest? How to make the best of given sizes and shapes? How to judge, what sizes may successfully be grouped together?

For example, the appearance of the exterior of a house is to be in proportion first to the total mass, which depends on height in relation to length, then the proportion of roof, wall and foundation, finally the relationship of doors, windows and other elements organized as a whole to be as unified whole. Similarly the furniture and its arrangement to the size of the room and the grouping of various accessories used, needs to be in proportion. Be it, as simple as a flower arrangement, the proportion needs to be observed, like the size, shape and height of flower arrangement in proportion to the vase it holds, the style of arrangement, and the backgrounds. Every minor aspect needs to be thought in order to achieve beauty through proportion.

There are definite means to solve the problems, the designer needs to know the relationships of size, shape, scale, space, color, texture, pattern and grouping of various elements of art and principles of design.

• So, to achieve arrangements that will hold the interest one must know how to create beautiful space relationships.
• It is desirable to make the best of given sizes and shapes, one must be able to produce change in appearance, achieving unity as a whole.
• It is necessary to understand scale, In order to judge what sizes may be grouped together success­fully.

Proportions are established, whether good or bad whenever two or more things are put together. Some people have an instinct for good proportions and the combinations of proportions they make are sure to please the eye. For­tunately proportion is one that can be acquired. The best method is to adopt a standard and then by comparing the results of experiments with that standard, one will soon arrive at the point of having a true “feeling” for fine space relationships.

Greek oblong: The ancient Greek designers were the first to anchor space relationships after centuries of striving for beauty. They arrived at the point where nearly everything they made exhibited good spacing. They formulated rules based on the proportions of human body and also study of fine relations in space. The oblong which they used as the basis of their space divisions is called “the golden oblong” and is a recognized standard for space relationships. This Greek oblong measured approximately two units on the short side and three on the long. The ratio of about 2:3 or 3:5, 5:8, 8:13 is the relationship used by the Greeks for their flat surfaces. Their standard for solids is a use of ratio of about 5:7:11.

Dividing the space into interesting parts:

When a space has to be divided into or more parts:

• Dividing the wall space for hanging wall pictures
• A living room is divided for sitting/ drawing and dining areas
• A single chair is to be placed in a group of drawing room chairs.

Similar problems occur and the same principle of division of space is required to be applied. The most satisfying result is achieved where the dividing line or the object is placed at a point a little more than one-half and a little less than two-thirds the distance from one end or the other.

The interesting division of space may be used in various means of achieving beauty, as follows:

• In arrangements of objects and space relationships

Ex: Accessories with furniture

• In arranging group of objects within a larger groups

Ex: Grouping of photos arrangements/ pictures.

Illusion of space:

The another aspect of the principle of proportion is to create illusionary spaces.

• Space illusions through use of lines to alter proportions
• Effect of lines in the appearance of room.
  Ex: Curtains and Draperies lines
• Lines of doors and windows in appearance of a room.

A house with rectangular windows will appear to be taller as compared to a house with square shaped windows. This is because the vertical lines of the rectangular windows draw the eye upward and the repetition of square shaped windows with wide arches in the other building carry the eye horizontally.

So use of lines help to alter the proportions. A room  that is too low, can be made to appear high by painting the ceiling lighter than the walls and also by using vertical lines/ stripes on the wall paper. Windows that are too short may have a long, narrow draperies and no valance.

The placing of pictures and accessories may be used to emphasize height or width in a room. For example, a vertical hanging will produce an impression of height. The use of more than one rug also appears to decrease the size of the room. To increase the existing width of a room, a valance or a cornice board may be used across a group of windows and rugs may be so placed that their lines will carry the eye across the room.

Knowledge and use of scale, unity and dominance is also essential in understanding proportion which are explained as follows:

1. Scale
2. Unity
3. Dominance

Scale: Scale is the capacity to select objects and arrange them so that they look well together. Both proportion and scale deal with the relative sizes of things. If there is a difference, proportions pertain to the relationship between the parts of a composition, while scale refers specially to the size of something, relative to some known standard or recognized constant. Scale in this sense means, that the sizes of all the elements making up the structure have a consistent, pleasing relationship to the structure and to each other and that the size of the structure is in good proportion to the different objects combined with it.

• An architect while planning the house, apply the principles of scale to design the windows, doors to arches, roofs, exteriors to the height and width of the proposed building such that everything is in scale and looks pleasant.
• Similarly furniture designers fabricate the furniture in scale. The maximum appearance of size may be given to a room through the use furnishings comparatively by the mass of an object to the size of room and also by the relationship of each part to every part and to the whole mass. When it is necessary to consider every aspect in detail while furnishing the home interiors to achieve scale in their arrangements.
• Each article must be in scale with the room containing it and also with the other articles in the room. The various structural parts of each article must be in scale with one- another and with the whole body.

Dominance:

Dominance relates to varying degrees of emphasis in design. It determines the visual weight of a composition establishes space and perspective and often resolves where the centre of emphasis should be located when looking at a design. There are three stages of dominance, each relating to the visual weight of a particular object within a composition.

• Dominant: The object given the most visual weight, the element of primary emphasis that advances to the foreground in the composition.
• Sub-dominant: The element of secondary emphasis, the elements in the middle ground of the composition.
• Subordinate: The object given the least visual weight, the element of tertiary emphasis that recedes to the background of the composition. 

Unity

The concept of unity describes the relationship between the individual parts and the whole of a composition. It investigates the aspects of a given design that are necessary to tie the  different composition/ parts together, to give it a sense of wholeness or to break it apart and give it a sense of variety. When all parts of the house are in perfect scale, it provides an appearance of unity. In home furnishings, each article must be in scale with the room and also with other furnishings and articles in the room. Ultimately it means that the structural parts of each article must be in scale with one another and to the whole, by which unity is achieved. Unity in design is a concept that stems from some of the Gestalt theories of visual perception and psychology, specifically those dealing with how the human brain organizes visual information into categories, or groups.

HARMONY:

Harmony is the art prin­ciple which produces an impression of unity through the selection and arrangement of consistent objects and ideas. When all the objects in a group seem to have a strong “family resemblance,” that group illustrates the principle of harmonious selection and when these “friendly” articles are so arranged that the leading lines follow the shape of the object on which they are placed, Harmony has been secured in both selection and arrangement.

It means to be together and pleasant. An example for harmony or harmonious effect – is the orchestra, which demonstrates the united effort of all members for the success of the performance. Similarly, in interior design, the colour, line, form, texture and pattern selected for room background, furniture and furnishing of the room should be consistent and blend together to create a harmonious effect. Harmony produces an impression of unity through the selection and arrangement of objects and ideas. Harmonious effect in line and shape, size, colour, texture and idea can be obtained either by the use of sharp contrast, uniformity through repetition or pleasing variety with unity by transition.  The ideas used to create a harmonious interior may express different themes.

In any composition principles of harmony have five aspects of harmony: (1) line and shape, (2) size, (3) texture, (4) idea, and (5) color.

Harmony of lines:

When a set of lines is drawn within a corner, following the lines of corner, repetition (A) occurs. This is the simplest kind of harmony. When a horizontal and a vertical line come together as in a right angle or a corner, these lines are in opposition to each other and forms a contrast (B). When any line cuts across a corner from one opposition line to another is a transition line; but when it is a straight line, it is sudden and sharp and it cuts the corner harshly. It is the line of contraction(C).

Transitional line in an easy, graceful line that leads from one line or shape to another, giving harmony instead of contradiction. If a curve line is drawn across corner, sharpness of contrast is softened and modified and that effect is transition(D). The combined curved lines can make easy transition and minimize severity (E).

The types of lines in a composition can be reduced to three main groups:

• Harmony through repetition of lines in a composition.
• Harmony in lines which contrast with one another.
• Harmony in lines through transition, which soften or modify the other.

Harmony of lines and shapes:

A combination of lines results in shapes. Applying three shapes of line – repetition, contrast and transition – to shapes that are seen in combination with one other. The most harmonious shape that can be put into a rectangle is another rectangle or a circle within another circle. Lines that repeat one other create shapes which show perfect harmony through uniformity (A). Lines that oppose or contradict each other forms contrast in shapes and are the opposite of harmony.  Some of the examples of these contrasting shapes are triangles and diamond shapes within squares, oblongs, and circles. Such combinations are useful only where extreme contrasts are required (B). Transitional lines have a graceful, softening effect, and have the power to bring together shapes which might in themselves be harmonious(C).

Shape harmony applied to hanging of curtains. In A there is perfect harmony and the effect is natural and restful. In B there is contradiction, and the shapes created are inharmonious. In C the softness of the ruffle and transition lines of the curve modify the unrelated shape seen against the architectural background of the window. These effects can be evolved in grouping furniture, table setting, flower arrangement, dress design, hairdressing, store design etc.

Application of Transitional lines in interiors and exteriors:

The transitional lines in interiors can be used through lines in furnishings, window curtains, arrangement of group of pictures on the wall, use of lamps and furniture.

Line used in architecture of the house, like the lines in ceiling, sloping roof, stair case, window sills, arched doorways, arcs of semicircular nature and the niches creates interest in interiors through their harmonious lines and the plain surfaces. An impression of gracefulness, serenity is achieved.

Similarly in exteriors, horizontal, vertical or arch lines of doors, windows add dignity, predominance, strength and graceful effect to the building.

Added to this the plantings, flowers, shrubs, the lawns and garden lamp stands- the repetition, in lines, shapes, sizes and colors, add harmony if planned well ahead.

Harmony of sizes:

The aspect of proportion called “scale” is allied to harmony in the sense of harmonious or consistent sizes. Grouping of un proportionate object results in unharmonious feeling. Selection and arrangement of large objects in large space and small objects in small areas can result in harmonious feeling. When a large flower arrangement is placed on a small center table or a small table lamp on a big work table look out of proportion and look inconsistent i.e contrast and lacks harmony. Harmony of size can be through repetition by repeating the same size – objects of similar sizes placed together like pictures, art objects. Harmony of size through transition (big and medium) will soften the effect of large space. 

Harmony of Textures:

Texture may be explained as the way material feels when the finger tips run lightly along its surface, the sensation of texture is suggested through the eye. For a harmonious effect of texture a group of medium textures can be combined with coarser or fine textures. Coarser texture of oak (wood) suggests sturdiness, may be used with coir carpet, denim cloth, home-spun fabric or similar coarser to produce the feeling of repetition of consistent textures or may be combined with medium texture like fine textured fabric, printed linen for a milder effect. On the other hand, the fine silks lustrous rayon’s, velvet’s, satins, highly glazed china especially with those delicate designs is out of harmony. But these fine textures go well with fine and satin like grain of woods.

Harmony of ideas:

It is not that only the sizes, shapes, textures and colours that make the interior harmonious but the ideas that combine one other should also be consistent. For ex: a thing that suits to a mansion or a rich environment may look out of place in a cottage and also in a modern building, placing a finely carved furniture or sculpture way look inconsistent and is a contradiction of ideas. Idea maintained throughout the arrangement produces harmonious effect of repetition. A transitional feeling emerged when the ideas are not too contrasting or repetitive.

Harmony of Colours:

Colour combinations giving most pleasure are those having harmony or unit. Knowledge of warm and cool colours and colour harmonies give impression of harmonious effects. Repeating warm or cool colours produces repetitive harmony. Combination of cool and warm colours generates contrast feeling. Use of related colours or contrasting colour scheme produces harmonious effect.

References:

1. Anna Hong Rutt (1969). Home Furnishing, Wiley Eastern private limited, New Delhi.
2. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954). Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., INC.
3. P.Parimalam, A. Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008). A text book of Interior Decoration,  Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi
4. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu (2009). Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
5. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970). The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures from magazines regarding types of rhythm and balance used in the interiors.
2. Identify the emphatic point in the room and method of achieving it.

Answer the following

1. Discuss the ways of achieving Balance in interiors with suitable illustrations.
2. Explain the application of Rhythm as a principle of design in arrangement of a living room.
3. Discuss the ways of achieving emphasis in interiors with suitable illustrations.
4. Explain the importance of emphasis in interior design
5. Explain the application of the principle of design proportion in a bedroom with suitable examples and sketches. 

Write short notes on

• Radial Balance
• Rhythm through repetition
• Proportion
• Good and bad proportion
• Dividing space into interesting parts.
• Greek oblong
• Illusion of space.

COLOUR – SOURCES, THEORIES AND PROPERTIES

An important and interesting element of design is colour. The word colour/color comes from a latin root which means to cover or conceal. Without colour the world may look drab and gloomy. Color is the visual perceptual property corresponding in human to the categories called red, yellow-blue and others. Color from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye which the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors. Color can transform a home more quickly and cheaply than any other decorational device. Interesting organization of space can be effected by the use of color. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics. It includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art and the physics of electromagnetic radiation is the visible range.

Color is visible only in the presence of light and it is a sensation. When white light passes through a prism; the wavelengths that compose the light are diffracted and reflect as VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red). Based on the wavelengths of each colour, they are visible or invisible. Wave lengths that are shorter than violet are UV rays and longer than red are infrared and are invisible to human eye. When these are combined by means of lens, white light is re-formed. Three factors are responsible for the sensation of colour – light, surface on which light falls and eye. Objects exhibit colour because of the selective manner in which their surfaces reflect or absorb light. White surface reflects all wavelengths equally and black absorbs and results in absence of colour. Violet has shortest wavelength while red has longest wavelength.

1. Light: This is the source of colour, and the source can be sunlight, artificial light as incandescent, fluorescent, vapour light. The colours of light sources can be white, yellow or other colours. True colour quality is seen only in white light. Colour perception occurs because objects reflect or transmit light, which enters the eye, acts upon the optic nerve and causes sensation of light and colour in the brain. When light strikes an opaque object, some of its hues are absorbed and others reflected. Those that are reflected give the object its colour colour quality. When no light is reflected the object appears black and when all the light is reflected the object appears white.
2. Surface on which it falls:The object either reflects or lets the light pass through depending on its transparency.

1. Light reflected from smooth surfaces is bright and sharp and from rough surfaces it is differed.
2. What is reflected is the sensation of colour. Eg: yellow-all the other colours in the VIBGYOR are absorbed except for yellow. White objects reflect all colours and black object absorbs all colours.
3. Colour of light depends on its source and whatever it passes through.
   White light  – noon sun, fluorescent

Bluish white- moon light

Yellowish    – candles, open fires, incandescent
Colour can be changed by the medium it passes through. Eg: Translucent shades, thin coloured curtains.
Warm light and yellow light intensifies red, yellow and orange but neutralizes blue and violet. Cool Cool light does the opposite.

3. Eye: When light falls on an object and reflects, it strikes the eye, stimulates the retina and creates a sensation colour.

There are several theories on colour pigment; the two commonly used ones are – Prang system and Munsell system. In both the theories, colours and its qualities are described through three different dimensions / qualities and these are Hue, Value and Intensity.

THE DIMENSIONS/PROPERTIES OF COLOUR – HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA or intensity

The Qualities/properties or dimensions of colors can be explained as

1. Hue
2. Value
3. Chroma or Intensity

HUE:

It is the term used to indicate the name of color. Hue is the quality by which one colour may be distinguished from another. Hue is the name of a colour. The colours, such as red, blue, and orange, which have hue are known as the ‘chromatic colours’ whereas black, white, and gray are known as the ‘achromatic colours’ because they do not have hue. Hue also indicates the warmth and coolness, red and orange seem warm, blue appears cold. It also tells the position of a colour in the spectrum or on the colour wheel. Each hue has its own ‘temperature’ an important characteristic in home design.

Effect of warmth and coolness can be felt while working with colours. Each hue has its own temperature. Reds, yellows and oranges are warm and blue, green, purple looks cool. Warm colours are active; cool colours are passive. Yellow-green and red-violet are intermediate. Good use can be made of the warmth and coolness of hues to modify the effect of the room. The warm advancing hues will make objects appear larger and nearer to the viewer, while the cool receding hues, which seems to recede i.e., far away to the viewer will appear to reduce the size of objects.   Red and Green, Blue and orange and yellow and violet are known as mixing patterns or Contrast of visual complementaries.

VALUE:

It describes the lightness or darkness of the colour. Value is the quality that distinguishes a light colour from a dark one, such as a light red or a dark red. Value indicates how light or how dark any given colour is in comparison with a value scale containing black at the lower end and white on top. Pure colours can be lightened by adding white and darkened by adding black. The nine steps in value scale can be measured. The middle step is referred to as ‘middle value.’ The colour that is often referred to as maroon is red of low value; pink is red of high value. Values that are lighter than normal colour are called tints eg; pink, sky blue etc. and values darker than normal are called as shades eg; maroon, navy blue etc. The colour wheel represents different values. The value scale of a colour wheel is:

Values are often numbered on scales of 0 to 10, 0-black and 10-white. The habit of associating every hue with its nearest value on the value scale is extremely useful in working with colour, for the value of any colour is of great importance in determining how it will fit into a given colour scheme. General guidelines in interior decoration state that the ceiling should be the lightest background value, the walls darker but still light and the floor the darkest of all. But dark walls may be used with a light floor. On the whole light walls and ceiling are desirable in small rooms and in those with limited window areas. A light ceiling is necessary if a good share of light is to be reflected down, but dark ceilings may be used to absorb extreme light glare, and they may be used also where ceilings are very high. Light colours are cheerful and feminine. Medium colours are restful and mysterious. Dark colours are depressing, stable, dignified and masculine.

Values alter the appearance of a room, and they can be used advantageously to give certain optical illusions. A very small room may look longer by use of light values that are adjacent on the value scale, especially in the background areas. Close values may be used also to disguise awkward or irregular shapes in a room.

INTENSITY:

Intensity or chroma refers to the brilliance or purity of colour. It is the dimension that indicates brightness and dullness of colour and it describes the distance of colour from gray or neutrality. A neutralized colour is grayer in intensity. To visualize intensity, one might think of gray on a vertical pole that represents a neutral axis with no colour, just pure gray. Around this pole is a band of hues, which grow grayer or less intense as they go inward toward the pole. Finally they reach the central pole and lose their colour completely. Each hue varies in colour strength or saturation and number of steps from the pole center.

The colours on the colour wheel are in full intensity. By mixing pigment with its complement (the colour opposite it on the colour wheel) a colour can be grayed and thus made less intense. Background colours usually should be somewhat gray or neutralized; softer intensities are much easier on the eyes and much easier to live with. Against these masses of grayed or undemanding colours a pleasant effect can be obtained by the contrast of a few small objects in vivid colours in less ratio.

Effects of Hue value intensity: 

THEORIES

There are different theories proposed by various colourists. Out of which Prang colour theory is the most popular and simple theory.

Prang system is most simple and easiest one to understand the formation of colours. According to the Prang system, colours are divided into five classes – primary, secondary, intermediate, tertiary and quaternary. There are only three primary or basic colours – red (R), blue (B), and yellow(Y) that cannot be obtained from other pigments. Mixture of any two primary colours in equal proportion makes secondary/binary colours. A mixture of red and blue gives violet (V), yellow and red produces orange (O) and yellow and blue results in Green (G). Primary and secondary colours together are commonly called the six standard colours. The secondary color substracts or absorbs even more waves from the light than the first colour did, hence this system of colour mixing of two adjacent primary colours is known as the subtractive process. Combination of one secondary colour with an adjacent primary colour in equally forms six intermediate colours viz., YO,YG, BG, BV, RV, RO. Combination of two secondary colours result in three tertiary colours – Smoky yellow (O+G), slate blue (G+V) and brick red(V+O), while a mixture of two tertiary colours results in three quaternary colours – Prune, Buff and Olive. The colour wheel arranges primary colours at equal intervals and places the secondary colours between them and intermediate colours occupy the in between positions between primary and secondary colours.

To understand and use of color, we need to know the classification of colours and colour wheel.

CLASSIFICATION OF COLOURS: 

The classification of colors is as follows:

1. Primary colour: All colors may be obtained by mixing in various proportions of three fundamental hues: red (R), yellow (Y), and blue (B). These are called the three primary colors because they are the elements in the use of pigment. They are the only hues in pigment that cannot be obtained by mixing other hues.
2. Secondary colours:

When two primary colors are mixed in equal amounts, a differ­ent hue will result. This new hue is called a binary or secondary color (Fig 4.7). There are three of these secondary / binary colors-purple (P), called violet (V) in the Prang System, made by mixing red and blue. Green (G), made by mixing yellow and blue and Orange (0), from red and yellow.

The primary and binary colors together are commonly called the six standard colors. 

3. Intermediate colour:

When a primary and a neighboring binary are mixed, the resultant is an     intermediate hue. In appearance, the intermediate hue is halfway be­tween the two colors. There are six of these intermediate hues: yellow-green (YG), blue-green (BG), blue-purple (BP) or blue violet (BV), red-purple (RP) or red violet (RV), red-orange (RO), and yellow-orange (YO).

4. Tertiary colours:

When two binary colors are mixed a tertiary color is obtained. The tertiary colors are yellow, blue, and red, much neutralized. Tertiary yellow resembles a smoky yellow, the blue is known as slate blue, and tertiary red is the color of old red brick.

5. Quaternary colours:

A mixture of two tertiary colors gives a quaternary. The quater­nary colors are green, purple, and orange, much neutralized. They are sometimes spoken of as olive, prune, and buff. Quaternary green is a mixture of the tertiaries yellow and blue. Tertiary yellow (B + Y + Y + R) added to tertiary blue (R + B + B + Y) gives this sum of colors-three parts of yellow, three parts of blue, and two parts of red. The result of the mixture is green, from the pre­dominance of yellow and blue, and it is much dulled with the red. The quaternary purple is ‘a mixture of the tertiaries blue and red. R + B + B + Y and Y + R + R + B make three parts of red and three parts of blue, giving purple, with two parts of yellow to dull it. Quaternary orange is tertiary red (Y + R + R + B) mixed with tertiary yellow (B + Y + Y + R). This makes three parts of yel­low and three parts of red, which give orange and the two parts of blue neutralize the orange.

REFERENCES:

1. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970),The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
2. P. Parimalam, A. Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
3. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954), Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co.INC.
4. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu (2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.

Assignment

1. Try to name the colours of various flowers and vegetables.
2. Collect pictures which depict different values of same hue.

Essay Questions:

1. Explain the three dimensions of colour.
2. Mention the importance of colour in interior design with examples
3. Explain the emotional effect of colour with examples

Short notes on:

1. What are the qualities of color
2. Colour theories
3. Receding and advancing colours.
4. Tints and shades

COLOUR SCHEMES AND COLOUR PLANS FOR INTERIORS

COLOUR HARMONIES/ COLOUR SCHEMES:

Choice of colour is ones personal taste, but a coordinated colour grouping may be more desirable whether it is product design, dress design or flower arrangement. As a first step in selecting colour scheme for interiors, one should analyse one’s colour preferences and select a key colour or dominant colour that can create a quietly rich background. The key colour unifies a decorative plan. A major colour of one room should be carried into the adjoining rooms. Along with the dominant colour, subordinate colour and accent colours may be selected.

Colour schemes are a simple system of choice of colour in the combination of three or four that harmonize. The harmonies may be related or contrasting. Variations in these are the bases for colour schemes.

Related colour harmony is composed of one or several closely related hues to produce the feeling of unity or harmony. It is of two types – monochromatic and analogous colour harmonies.

Monochromatic colours are variations of a single colour or hue, ranging in value from light to dark, in intensity from bright to dull. Ex- Pink, maroon are related colours of red. This colour harmony gives spacious feeling, continuity and provides more unity and quietness. Small accents of another colour are introduced for variety and excitement or white and black to break monotony. Beige, brown and orange are tints and shades of orange. Unity and harmony are established through this scheme.

Analogous colours are combinations of two or more adjacent colours having one primary colour in common. Analogous colours are those that are adjacent on the colour wheel. Typical examples are purple-blue, which have blue in common, or green-blue, green, and yellow-green, which have yellow in common. In this scheme, the colours should always be in different values or different intensities or they should differ both in value and intensity. Adjacent colors are harmonious because they contain a portion of the same colors. It is entirely safe to combine the colours within ¼ th of 1 circle. Only one primary should be included. 

Monotone/Neutral Color scheme:  Black, white and gray are the true neutral colours and some modern rooms have been decorated in only these tones with amazing effectiveness. However accented neutral harmonies are more popular. A neutral scheme with some areas in brilliant colours – O, G or R makes an interesting combination. This scheme gives a feeling of calm, quite, classic understated look. Very subtle and very appealing for use in more expensive products. Not good for signage, packaging, advertising or anyother graphic application because the monotonous or subtle that they appear unreadable, so some contrasting color or texture is needed.

Contrasting colour harmony is based on hues far apart on the colour wheel. They present great variety as well balance warm and cool hues.

Complementary colours are those opposite to one another on the colour wheel (red and green, blue and orange, yellow and purple). Used in full intensity, complementary colours provide strong contrasts and effects. When complementary colours are chosen to play a dominant role in the colour scheme, they should be used in various amounts, values, and intensities. As accents, their intensities may be full. The complement of a primary is a binary, for binary it is primary and for intermediate it is intermediate only. Complementary colors balance as they are opposites, one warm and one cool. In their brightest intensities, complements literally command attention so are specially effective in packaging, advertising, point-of-purchase, banners, sports, uniforms or any other usage where exuberant and instant attention is needed, In softer or deeper values, effect is more subtle. Complementary colors used together provide extreme contrast.

Double complementary colours are combinations of two sets of complements of adjacent colours. The yellow, yellow-green and their complements purple and blue-purple are next to each other. Double complementary scheme combines the harmonious aspect of analogous types with the contrast found in complementary combinations. In using a double complementary harmony there should be one outstanding hue, which would be the largest amount used, and it should be the dullest of all the colours; the next colour may be a little brighter, but should still be dull; the 3^rd colour used in only a small amount, ought to be about one-half neutralized; the 4^th colour for the smaller accents may be used in or near its brightest intensity.

A split-complementary colour scheme is colour grouping in which a colour on each side of complementary colour is used with its complement. This is not nearly as obvious as complementary scheme, yet it is much more interesting. For example, red is counterbalanced by yellow-greens and blue-greens. Combination of a primary or intermediate colour with the colours that are on either side of its complement form split complementary.  Since primary is an element; it does not have component parts. The colours on either side of it do not enter into its composition. Therefore, one cannot start to plan a split complementary harmony with a binary colour, because its complement is a primary and it is impossible to split a primary because there is only one colour in its composition. The amounts of different values and intensities should be adjusted.

Triad colour scheme has three hues placed at equidistant on the colour wheel. An example would red, yellow, and blue. Combinations of these three are shocking as these are in full intensity. These combinations can be subdued by reducing its intensity and combined for systematic unity. On the prang colour chart, equilateral triangles create 4 triads. These are one primary triad, made of the 3 primary colours R, B, Y, the binary or secondary triad – G, O, P; and the two intermediate triads – YO, BG, RP and YG, BP, RO.

Tetrad colour scheme: Any four hues that are equidistant from each other on the colour wheel produce a tetrad colour scheme. Eg;  Y-O, G, B-V, R.

Colour can make a room look larger and more spacious, or it can make it appear smaller and cozier. For an effect of space, receding colours can be used. Colours that give a feeling of distance and are known as cool colours include clear grays, gray-blues, greens, and violets. However, cool receding colours which are unrelieved by warmer accents, may make a room look pleasant and inviting. An intimate, cozy effect is created by the use a scheme of predominantly warm advancing colours such as orange, yellow and red.

Warm colours used without the contrast and relief of cooler ones tend to give a closed feeling. At the very beginning, a designer needs to decide whether a room is to be predominantly warm or cool. Factors to consider in making this decision are occupants taste, purpose, size of the room or spatial design, whether the room is normally sunny or dark and whether it is likely to be warm or cool in temperature.

Thus colours can have a pronounced influence on the appearance of a room. For instance, advancing or warm colours can make a room look smaller. For a long or narrow room, advanced colours tend to decrease its length and give the effect of better proportion. Though spatial illusions, colour can thus create space, lower the ceiling, shorten a room, lengthen a room, or alter an undesirable feature.

Factors to be considered while choosing colour schemes

There are several factors one must keep in mind while choosing colour schemes. The personal as well as room characteristics have to be considered. The general points of reference are:

1. Physical characteristics of the room: the room should be seen from 3 aspects i.e. size, shape and exposure.a. Size: a small room looks spacious of a cool light and receding colour is used on all four walls and the wood work. The warm colours are advancing and they reduce the apparent size of the room and so should be used in large rooms.
   b. Shape: A long and narrow room can be made to look in better proportion if two short walls are colored in warm advancing colours or patterned wall paper and the long walls are colored in cool, plain, receding colour in low intensity. A square room can be made to look rectangular if two of its opposite walls are painted in dark colour and two in light colours. A room with high ceiling can be made to look more intimate and cozy if the ceiling is painted in dark colour and it is decorated.
   c. Exposure: Warm colours are most suitable for rooms which have north or north-east exposure for eg; light yellow/beige. Blues, greens, greys and cool browns are suitable for room in south or southwest direction. A room which has too much of light entering a room through large opening should have dark colours specially on walls facing the openings and on the other hand those houses with too little light should have light or white colored walls so that whatever light enters that room is reflected back and room looks brighter.
2. Purpose of room: The colour scheme in a room should reflect the purpose for which it is going to be used. A living room is meant for entertainment and hospitality, a dining room for pleasant surrounding while eating, a bed room reflecting restful and cool environment, a bathroom reflecting colours of water and so on. A hospital room should look hygienic and clean, a hotel room is impersonal. Informal rooms call for bright, strong and stimulating contrasts while children’s room should have either gray or delicate colours.
3. Mood of room: The colour one uses in a room would influence the type of mood it reflects. Therefore while choosing colours the psychological aspects of colours should be considered. There are colours like lemon yellow, white etc. will give a gay and cheerful atmosphere, a sober and dignified effect can be obtained by using off white, grey, blues and browns. The room gains a delicate feminine look if painted in dusty pink, pale jade green, white or peach colour. Masculine tough is obtained by use of wine red, navy blue, brown etc.
4. Effect of lighting: The artificial light affects the colour of room so due consideration should be given to how colours would look in the type of lighting used at home. Yellow light of incandescent bulb will absorb yellow colour and would make a brown colour look very dull, a blue wall paper would look gray and lemon-yellow walls would look very yellow and bright. A pink bulb would make pink colour warmer, blue would look purplish and yellow would look like peach colour. The bluish light of some bulbs would make pink walls look reddish violet in colour, yellow walls would appear to be greenish and blue would look grayish. Cool light of fluorescent lamps affect blues and purples; yellow looks very dull.
5. Family tastes and personalities: The rooms used by all people should not reflect individual preferences but a general taste. Living rooms, family rooms and dining rooms should have colours that appeal to all members of the family. Strong preferences of any one individual can be limited to the person’s bed room. A living room should neither be very feminine nor masculine. Light colours should be used in children’s rooms, vivid colours in young people’s rooms and soft medium ones for adults. The common rooms should be painted with warm cheerful colours which express hospitality.
6. Style: the style of living and the style of room should also be considered. A room in a traditional period house should have colours which were typical of that period style. For eg; to express early American style, subdued colours have to be used. Colonial style emphasizes use of rich and medium value colours, much of the French décor requires soft, delicate coloring, Victorian colours were pompous and strong like rich and elegant tones of claret red, emerald green, gold and plum colour while medium trend is towards neutral colours with bright colours as accents.
7. Fashion: Colour schemes suitable for a particular room also change with fashion. At a certain time browns were the in thing while at other time, gay bright colours were in fashion. The light colours or dark colours also come and go in favor. Although fashion pre-dominates, one should not sacrifice the functional and practical aspect. The bright colours may be in fashion but they should be handled in such a way that it does not affect the eyes.
8. Textures: The colours should be chosen keeping in mind the type of texture on which they are to be used. Coarse textures can take bright colours but when used on smooth textures bright colours are very glaring and may affect the eyes. Bright blue and rose colour look very harsh in glossy textures but in handloom materials they look attractive and also in rugs or dull textured materials the same colours look very pleasant.
9. Possessions:  Colours of new things have to be chosen keeping in mind whatever you already have. The entire colour scheme should be looked at while choosing colour of any part. A change in colour of existing furnishings can be brought about of bleaching, dyeing, covering etc. sofas could have new slip covers suitable to the changing colour scheme.
10. Climate: The colour scheme which you choose should be suitable to the climatic conditions. A place where there is bright sunshine throughout the year may need cool colours both for exterior and interior of building. Cold climatic conditions encourage you to use warm colours such as yellow, orange and reds at times even in the bed rooms. A cloudy and gray looking climate has to be balanced by bright, sunny colours to lift the spirits of people.

Colour schemes for different rooms:

The colour scheme should be chosen with a careful consideration to the purpose of a room. The time of day the room is most occupied and its aspect also are to be considered so that the room looks attractive.

Entrance hall: The colour scheme used in entrance hall should be a bit impersonal and dignified. Very little furniture is used in hall so the interest could be provided by the use of colourful treatment to walls and floors. A small passage which serves as entrance hall for a flat should be made to look colourful and decorative through attractive wall paper or beautiful rugs. The entrance hall of a two-storeyed dwelling is the connecting link between both the floors and hence it should have colours which are used in both the floors- the gay friendly colours of living areas and cool restful colours of sleeping quarters. An entrance hall which is in the centre of the house and is used more as a corridor should have light and gay colours because the amount of light may not be adequate. It usually does not have furniture so the walls and floors have to provide necessary pattern to overcome bare drabness.

Living room: The living room is a place where family relaxes in the evening and where you entertain the guests. The choice of colour scheme should cater to both these needs. The cooler colors should be used to give the restful and relaxed look to it and a touch of warm colour to make them look cheerful and hospitable. The light warm colours are used in colder climates but sky blue or white could be used for tropical climate. For a temperate climate one could use white, brown, coral, neutralized lemon yellow.

Dining room: Colours like lettuce green, striking pink, better yellow, lemon yellow, watermelon rose or tomato red give refreshing and delicious implications. White is desirable, particularly if white is used on the table. Some successful features are skyblue ceilings and white walls, gay colours can be supplied by houseplant, tropical fish and birds.

Kitchen: It should be cheerful, light and bright. Cool colours to counter act heat of cooking. White or light walls reflect light and best for visibility. Colour of sinks, fridge and stove interfere with colour schemes. If they are white or pale gray, these can be easily fitted into a room design.

Bed room: It is more personal room hence the colour scheme should be a favorable one of the occupant. A pretty colourful room helps to develop a girls personality. A guest room should be impersonal to meet the needs of different age and sex. Children’s bed room should be playful and colourful.

Bathroom: Walls and fixtures should be harmonious, hygienic and aesthetic. Colours appreciable by all should be used. Colours often preferred are green, blue, violet, gray.

Games room: Bold and vigorous colours can be used.

References

1. Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/munsell_color_system
2. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970),The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
3. P.parimalam, A.andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
4. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954), Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co.INC.
5. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu (2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.

Assignment

1. Collect interior pictures which depict different colour schemes.

Essay Questions:

1. Explain with an illustration the Prang color chart
2. Explain the various colour schemes in detail
3. Explain with illustrations of various color schemes used for interior enrichment
4. List the factors to be considered in selection of color scheme for a living room.
5. Write a note on related and contrasting color harmony.
6. Triad as the color scheme, plan color scheme for a family living room

Short notes on:

1. Effect of warm and cool colors.
2. Related color harmony.
3. Contrasting color harmony

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS OF COLOUR  

Colour makes an immediate visual impact and creates mood. Physicists, physiologists, psychologists and industrialists work with the visual and emotional effects of colours. Our emotional reactions to certain colours are partly due to the symbolic meanings that have associated with them. In the earlier days colours were used to convey definite ideas to the people who were unable to read. White was employed for innocence, black for evil or death, grey for penitence, red for love, blue for sincerity or hope etc. Colour because of its emotional effect upon us, is largely responsible for the atmosphere of a home. It is capable of soothing or irritating, cheering or depressing, charming or boring, welcoming or repelling. An important thing for a decorator to know is how to use colour for its emotional effect. Different colours excite different emotional responses and some persons are more sensitive and more stimulated than others.

Yellow: It is the colour of the sun and artificial light, has an effect of cheerfulness, gaiety, humor, buoyancy, optimism, exultation, sympathy, pleasant and even prosperity. It is the symbol of power for Greeks and Egyptians. In home decoration yellow is indispensable, because more than any other colour it gives the effect of light. The modified yellows, such as buff, cream, ivory, beige, pale lime yellow and pale banana yellow are useful wall colours because they are harmonious with each other and used in draperies, carpets and upholstery. Yellow is also used for exterior house especially for shutters. The darker and more neutralized yellows and greenish yellows are associated with sickness, disease, indecency, cowardice, jealousy, envy, deceit and treachery. Dangerous and flammable materials like fuel oil, gasoline, kerosene etc. are indicated by yellow colour.

Blue: It is the coolest of the cool colours. It suggests rest, repose, calm, dignity, serenity, passiveness and tranquility. It also signifies sincerity and hope. It is the colour of clear skies and deep water, so, it is associated with coolness. It expresses distance, spaciousness, loftiness, formality, restraint, happiness, truth and honor. Intense blue can be a helpful accent. Eg. of tints and shades of blue are aquamarine, royal blue, sea blue, navy blue and cyan. Blue is used as a caution against movement or use of equipment being worked on such as elevators, scaffolding etc. and also for protective materials.

Red: It is the colour of fire and blood. It is expressive of primitive passion, war, vigour, power, movement, tension and danger, and aggression. It is the symbol of love, vigour, action, virility and sex. It’s hot, exciting and stimulating. Bright red should be used in limited area to add life and cheer. In decoration, red gives impression of splendor, warmth, hospitality and exhilaration. It is cheerful but not restful and so must be used discreetly.  Cool reds like harmonize with blues and purples. Warm reds like tomatoes harmonize with yellow and orange. Dark, dull, raspberry red has proved to be a successful colour for carpets. Eg. of tints and shades of red are maroon, crimson, pink, cherry red, straw berry red, tomato red etc. Pink should be usually grayed if used in large quantities. If pink and blue are used together,  pink should be slightly orchid and the blue should have a violet. Red is used for fire protection systems and equipment and stop signals.

Green:  Compared to the other colours, green is relatively neutral in its emotional effect, tending to be more passive than active. In ordinary usage green expresses freshness, raw, callow youth and immaturity. It is associated with luck of Irish. Green is the colour of grass, leaves, vegetables and naturally suggests rest, cool shade and refreshment, all pleasant things. Some colorists say that green has negative qualities as well as positive ones and that it suggests envy, jealousy and ill health. It also denotes life, spring and hope. The most usable greens are those that have been reduced in density and made subtle. Greens that are employed on the exteriors of houses or on garden furniture or fences should be warm in quality so that they will harmonize with the colour of the foliage. Ex; navy green, military green, moss green, apple green, leaf green etc. Green is used for safety i.e. first aid dispensary or kits, stretchers, safety showers etc.

Orange: It shares the qualities of reds and yellow. In its pure form it is so warm, hence should be used in small quantities. It expresses energy, spirit, hope, courage and cordiality. Neutralized forms of orange like peach, rust, copper are used in home decoration radiate hospitality and cheer. Dangerous parts of moving machinery are colored with orange.

Violet: It is made of red and blue, which possess quite opposite characteristics and when mixed cancel each other’s effect, so that purple is some what gentle and vague. It suggests mystery, dignity, reflection, mourning, philosophical musing and twilight. It is the symbol of royalty. It must be used with caution. It is artistic suggesting subtlety and sensitivity. Royal violet projects dignity and some violets project tension and depression. Eg; lilac, lavender etc. Valuable materials are colored with violet.

Brown: It is designated to peasants during middle ages, thus associated with humility. It is the reminiscent of autumn, harvest and decay. It ranges from yellow to red in cast and has richness and depth. Brown is used for walls with natural wood furniture and light beige rugs or with one striking colour such as turquoise or cherry red. Chocolate, burnt cinnamon, or other red-browns are more usable than yellow-browns.

Black: It is the powerful accent colour, depressing if used in excess. It suggests weight, dignity, formality and solemnity, evil, old age, silence, subdued, profound and depressing. Black is also indicative of sorrow, gloom, death, secrecy and terror. It also suggests mystery, wisdom or sophistication. To a decorative scheme of dark colours it adds spirit and interest, but in a light colour scheme it gives too much contrast and makes other colour appear faded. Electrical conduit is colored with black.

Gray: It is produced by mixing black and white, has no particular character of its own, although in light tints it seems gentle and serene and in dark shades it is dignified and restrained. When used with limited areas of chromatic colours, grays are useful. They provide sober and good background colour and are subject to dullness; giving an impression of monotony. It is associated with retirement, sadness, modesty and indifference.

White: It is the safe colour and can be used in large areas. It is associated with cleanliness and sanitation. It is positive, stimulating, luminous, airy, light and delicate. It suggests clarity, openness, brightness, purity, chastity, innocence, faith, truth, peace and surrender. It also signifies honesty and integrity. White used with accents imply modernity and high style.  Sanitary equipment are colored with white.

Summary of the emotional effects of colours:

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF COLOURS
RED. Physical
Positive: Physical courage, strength, warmth, energy, basic survival, ‘fight or flight’, stimulation, masculinity, excitement.

Negative: Defiance, aggression, visual impact, strain.
Being the longest wavelength, red is a powerful colour. Although not technically the most visible, it has the property of appearing to be nearer than it is and therefore it grabs our attention first. Hence its effectiveness in traffic lights the world over. Its effect is physical; it stimulates us and raises the pulse rate, giving the impression that time is passing faster than it is. It relates to the masculine principle and can activate the “fight or flight” instinct. Red is strong, and very basic. Pure red is the simplest colour, with no subtlety. It is stimulating and lively, very friendly. At the same time, it can be perceived as demanding and aggressive.

BLUE. Intellectual.
Positive: Intelligence, communication, trust, efficiency, serenity, duty, logic, coolness, reflection, calm.
Negative: Coldness, aloofness, lack of emotion, unfriendliness.
Blue is the colour of the mind and is essentially soothing; it affects us mentally, rather than the physical reaction we have to red. Strong blues will stimulate clear thought and lighter, soft blues will calm the mind and aid concentration. Consequently it is serene and mentally calming. It is the colour of clear communication. Blue objects do not appear to be as close to us as red ones. Time and again in research, blue is the world’s favourite colour. However, it can be perceived as cold, unemotional and unfriendly.

YELLOW. Emotional
Positive: Optimism, confidence, self-esteem, extraversion, emotional strength, friendliness, creativity.
Negative: Irrationality, fear, emotional fragility, depression, anxiety, suicide.
The yellow wavelength is relatively long and essentially stimulating. In this case the stimulus is emotional, therefore yellow is the strongest colour, psychologically. The right yellow will lift our spirits and our self-esteem; it is the colour of confidence and optimism. Too much of it, or the wrong tone in relation to the other tones in a colour scheme, can cause self-esteem to plummet, giving rise to fear and anxiety. Our “yellow streak” can surface.

GREEN. Balance
Positive: Harmony, balance, refreshment, universal love, rest, restoration, reassurance, environmental awareness, equilibrium, peace.
Negative: Boredom, stagnation, blandness, enervation.
Green strikes the eye in such a way as to require no adjustment whatever and is, therefore, restful. Being in the centre of the spectrum, it is the colour of balance – a more important concept than many people realise. When the world about us contains plenty of green, this indicates the presence of water, and little danger of famine, so we are reassured by green, on a primitive level. Negatively, it can indicate stagnation and, incorrectly used, will be perceived as being too bland.

VIOLET. Spiritual
Positive: Spiritual awareness, containment, vision, luxury, authenticity, truth, quality.
Negative: Introversion, decadence, suppression, inferiority.
The shortest wavelength is violet, often described as purple. It takes awareness to a higher level of thought, even into the realms of spiritual values. It is highly introvertive and encourages deep contemplation, or meditation. It has associations with royalty and usually communicates the finest possible quality. Being the last visible wavelength before the ultra-violet ray, it has associations with time and space and the cosmos. Excessive use of purple can bring about too much introspection and the wrong tone of it communicates something cheap and nasty, faster than any other colour.

ORANGE.
Positive: Physical comfort, food, warmth, security, sensuality, passion, abundance, fun.
Negative: Deprivation, frustration, frivolity, immaturity.
Since it is a combination of red and yellow, orange is stimulating and reaction to it is a combination of the physical and the emotional. It focuses our minds on issues of physical comfort – food, warmth, shelter etc. – and sensuality. It is a ‘fun’ colour. Negatively, it might focus on the exact opposite – deprivation. This is particularly likely when warm orange is used with black. Equally, too much orange suggests frivolity and a lack of serious intellectual values.

PINK.
Positive: Physical tranquillity, nurture, warmth, femininity, love, sexuality, survival of the species.
Negative: Inhibition, emotional claustrophobia, emasculation, physical weakness.
Being a tint of red, pink also affects us physically, but it soothes, rather than stimulates. (Interestingly, red is the only colour that has an entirely separate name for its tints. Tints of blue, green, yellow, etc. are simply called light blue, light greenetc.) Pink is a powerful colour, psychologically. It represents the feminine principle, and survival of the species; it is nurturing and physically soothing. Too much pink is physically draining and can be somewhat emasculating.

GREY
Positive: Psychological neutrality.
Negative: Lack of confidence, dampness, depression, hibernation, lack of energy.
Pure grey is the only colour that has no direct psychological properties. It is, however, quite suppressive. A virtual absence of colour is depressing and when the world turns grey we are instinctively conditioned to draw in and prepare for hibernation. Unless the precise tone is right, grey has a dampening effect on other colours used with it. Heavy use of grey usually indicates a lack of confidence and fear of exposure.

BLACK.
Positive: Sophistication, glamour, security, emotional safety, efficiency, substance.
Negative: Oppression, coldness, menace, heaviness.
Black is all colours, totally absorbed. The psychological implications of that are considerable. It creates protective barriers, as it absorbs all the energy coming towards you, and it enshrouds the personality. Black is essentially an absence of light, since no wavelengths are reflected and it can, therefore be menacing; many people are afraid of the dark. Positively, it communicates absolute clarity, with no fine nuances. It communicates sophistication and uncompromising excellence and it works particularly well with white. Black creates a perception of weight and seriousness.

WHITE.
Positive: Hygiene, sterility, clarity, purity, cleanness, simplicity, sophistication, efficiency.
Negative: Sterility, coldness, barriers, unfriendliness, elitism.
Just as black is total absorption, so white is total reflection. In effect, it reflects the full force of the spectrum into our eyes. Thus it also creates barriers, but differently from black, and it is often a strain to look at. It communicates, “Touch me not!” White is purity and, like black, uncompromising; it is clean, hygienic, and sterile. The concept of sterility can also be negative. Visually, white gives a heightened perception of space. The negative effect of white on warm colours is to make them look and feel garish.

BROWN.
Positive: Seriousness, warmth, Nature, earthiness, reliability, support.
Negative: Lack of humour, heaviness, lack of sophistication.
Brown usually consists of red and yellow, with a large percentage of black. Consequently, it has much of the same seriousness as black, but is warmer and softer. It has elements of the red and yellow properties. Brown has associations with the earth and the natural world. It is a solid, reliable colour and most people find it quietly supportive – more positively than the ever-popular black, which is suppressive, rather than supportive.

References

1. Ruth Morton, Hilda Geuther. and Virginia Guthrie (1970),The Home its Furnishings and Equipment. Webster Division, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
2. P.parimalam, A.andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
3. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954), Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co.INC.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures from the magazine which depict a particular colour and try to analyse the psychological effect of it.
2. Analyse five school uniform colours in terms of psychological effects.
3. Find out the meanings and significance of colours in different countries.

LIGHTING: IMPORTANCE, SOURCES AND USES

Light as an element of design should be used for visual comfort and to achieve desirable emotional responses. Factors related to visual comfort are those, which enable one to see easily, accurately and in comfort. Emotional responses are influenced by the manner in which light has been used to communicate ideas about color, texture, shape, form and line.

Light is a utilitarian/functional one, which is considered as an element of art and can also be used very effectively for the purpose of decoration. Decorative lighting are dramatic, attractive and creates a cheerful atmosphere. Light and color are as inseparable as space and form. Without light there is no color, and light is always colored. Good lighting can make a house warm and friendly, lively or restful. Bad lighting results in a dreary or glaring interior and can be dangerous.

LIGHTING AND ITS EFFECTS:

Lighting a space is an important element in determining the beauty and comfort of the home. Good lighting can make the interiors warm and friendly, lively or restful. Good lighting increases the efficiency in work performance, minimizes eye strain, and provides safety by cutting down the accidents. Bad lighting results in dull and dreamy atmosphere. Glare in interiors can make the users restless; uncomfortable which in turn is harmful for the health. Light as an element of art and design is used for visual comfort and to achieve desirable emotional responses. Visual comforts are those, which enable us to see easily, accurately and in comfort. Emotional responses are influenced by the manner in which light has been used to communicate ideas about color, texture, shape, form and line. Without light, there would be no visible form, color or texture nor any visible enclosure of interior space.

Light has a definite emotional effect. Light is stimulating, darkness is depressing. A sunny day makes us feel good, cheerful and active. On the other hand, a cloudy day makes us feel dull.

Glare: it is due to excessive amts of light reaching the eye & causing scattering of light inside the eye. Glare arises when some parts of the field of new are bright in reaction to the general level.

Light is measured in terms of foot candles.

Foot candle: the lumen per sq foot (the quantity of light spread for 1sq foot)

An ordinary candle, spreading light in all directions, will spread the lumen per sq ft on a surface held 1 foot away from it.

Advantages of good lighting

• Clear visual perception of the object and surroundings.
• Increased efficiency.
• Better appearance.
• Reduced accidents.
• Better utilization of time by not depending on direct sunlight.
• High reliability and continuity.
• Reduction of eye strain and better health of community.

The objectives of Home Lighting are:

• Good lighting for visual activities
• The co-ordination of the lighting sources with decorative scheme

1^st is achieved by having enough light & light of desirable quality. 2^nd is achieved by selection of appropriate fixtures & portable lamps, wise use of structural lighting & judicious placement of the lighting sources

Poor lighting can cause eye strain & good lighting can enable many individuals with poor sight to see more clearly. Good lighting is an aid in making working conditions safer, decreasing fatigue &nervous tensions, improving sitting posture& making the home a more pleasant & interesting place. Light is decorative as well as functional & it must be treated as an art element to be employed &controlled so as to enhance the beauty of a room.

LIGHTING SOURCES

There are two sources of light, they are

1. Natural lighting.
2. Artificial lighting.

1. Natural Light:

Natural lighting is the light given out by the natural elements in the environment such as that of sun and moon, Which again is reflected by the sky, water, earth, buildings and so on. Natural light is provided to interiors during day through the windows and sky light from ceiling and also the reflected light by the wall, floor, furniture and part of the light is also absorbed by the objects around. The light available will depend upon the amount of reflected light, which is dependant on the materials.

Sun is the first and the oldest source of light known to us. Its radiation not only permits us to see, but also allows the life supporting processes to take place. Sight is one of our senses dependent solely on an outside agency i.e., light for functioning through windows and ceiling.

A rough surface absorbs radiant energy more readily than a smooth one. Glass helps in diffusing the light as it distributes the light and provides more illumination at the farther side of the room. The use of shades and draperies also influence the amount of daylight that is available in a room. Opaque shades may cut out the light, while translucent shades transmit the light. Curtains and draperies may cut off as much as 75 percent of the light; where as a clear window and very thin curtain materials diffuse the light and soften the shadows. A window area equivalent to one-fourth of the floor area is desirable. It can be said that windows provide ventilation, light and decoration and thus satisfy three principal needs.

Natural lighting is the quantity of day light that passes into an interior through windows is first determined by the directional exposure – north, south , east, west, or the variation north east, N-W, S-E,S-W, and so forth.

Produce light that is

South   –          ‘Constant’ Bright and Warm

North   –           Steady, Cool Effects

East    –           Fluctuating, Coldish

West    –           Charging and Warmish

Thus, daylight is such an important factor that sufficient number of doors and windows are provided which also enhances the appearance of a room. As much daylight as is desired can now be procured by means of plain glass walls and large windows extending from floor to ceiling. Besides, movable curtains should be provided, so that the quantity of light can easily be controlled.

Advantages

• Natural light adds beauty to the home
• Makes a room more cheerful & pleasant place to live

Guidelines for good Natural Lighting:

• The interior surfaces of the walls should be painted with bright colors to reflect more light. The ceiling of a room should be, preferably, painted in white color to reflect more light.
• The corners of a room can be provided with windows to avoid dark corners. Broad openings give better distribution of light.
• Two opposite side openings give uniform light.
• Deep openings minimize glare.
• Windows should be provided with sunshades or other shading devices to eliminate glare of sunlight.
• Diffused glass gives more light than plain glass.
• Metal window sashes admit more light than wooden frames.
• Ventilators, at roof level, can be judiciously used in order to provide more light.

Rooms occupied during day time should face the south-east rather than the south-west so that they will receive summer sun at a relatively low level.

The windows should have an area at least 1/10 of floor space to get maximum day light. Direct sun light is desirable in winter but not in summer.

Southern exposures are always assumed to produce interior light that is ‘constant’, bright & warm: northern ones produce steady, cool effects. Eastern windows bring a fluctuating, coldish light; western lighting is changing & warmish. These effects are varied by the movements of the sun in its daily across the sky.

The quality of natural light in interiors also relates to exposure, when day light is reflected from nearby forms or surfaces, light in the interior is altered. for example: a white wall adjacent to windows will sharpen & intensify light from any exposure, a red wall will reflect pinkish light in varying degrees, tending to warm up north light & to cool down south light. Trees that overhang a window or cut out a direct sky view will both dim the light & add cool, greenish overtones to it.

Ways of screening light in interiors

The three architectural elements that admit daylight into interiors are 1) windows that bring light in from the side 2) walls of glass (glass curtain walls & sliding or hung glass doors) 3) sky lights that admit light from above.

Natural Side Lighting: one of the principal qualities of natural light in interiors is that it produces shadow. When side lighting is used well, it enhances shapes, heightens texture; shape becomes differentiated & clearer than when light falls from the above, or from a frontal portion. Side light strengthens the volumetric shape becomes differentiated & clearer than when light falls from above, or from a frontal portion. Sidelight strengthens the volumetric shape of an interior, especially when some of the entering light strikes adjacent walls.

Too often today designers cover side light windows with an array of curtains- draperies, over-draperies, glass curtains, & the like. These treatments are done, they say, for decorative effect, for privacy, & to soften the line between the edge of the window & the wall plane.

Walls of glass: glass curtain walls & walls composed of multiple windows are thought to be a prime component of design in the modern movement. Glass walled structures allow the interiors to absorb the maximum amount of available light. The light varies from bright, at the top of building to moderate as the shadows from other structures fall across its lower faces. Isolated buildings with large expanses of glass are more apt to get a brighter light penetration throughout top floors and bottom floors as well.

Any   building with a maximum amount of glass requires some means of light control; both for quality & quantity sometimes daylight is so strong that it becomes glaring, so sharp that it prevents clear vision. In interiors with extremely bright natural light, it is often necessary to adopt color schemes of low concentration. When direct sun light enters an interior where high contrast color has been used, the strong light will heighten the effect through casting very dark shadow.

Window coverings can control natural light where there is too much brightness. Curtaining of loosely woven cloth or sheer material will still allow day light to enter.

Natural light from above: day light entering from above is almost without exception, diffuse & can spread over a space even through relatively small openings. When designing interiors with skylights, it is advantageous to develop the space with high contrasts in color & texture. This procedure reintroduces the contrast lost in the down pouring day light.

Clerestory lighting – lighting from small windows placed high in a wall. Light may be diffused as it enters. The light from a north window may prove too cold or from a south window too warm. The translucent or glass curtain is the usual medium for diffusing the light from southern windows. Many curtains today are not levied & are made of a fabric which is partially translucent. Thus they become useful when it is desirable to exclude some light & to filter the rest. Some other kinds of shades such as pull shades made from very narrow bands of bamboo; do modify the light which can enter a room.

• Occasionally it is desirable to shut off the window.
• Shutters, jalousies or Venetian blinds – which can open to light one min, deflect it another, & exclude it another.
• Opaque draperies – in the form of traverse curtains & lateral control
• Opaque vertical blinds permit a lateral control
• Opaque roller shades have long been used for up & down control.

Flames: the amount of light at a point in indoor will be determined by the total light available outdoor & the degree to which the outdoor light penetrates the interior of a room.

This can be obtained by burning with a flame or by an electric current also.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT:

Artificial lighting is necessary during the nights and also when natural lighting is poor. Most of the interiors today are incomplete without artificial lighting. Wide varieties of lamps are used to enhance the design and appearance. The quantity and quality of light produced differs according to the type of lamp used.

Modern artificial light, particularly electric light is not only a remarkable functional utility, but also a marvelous flexible art medium. Artificial light may produce unity by its diffusion through the entire room. It may show contrast and emphasis by bringing bright light to important areas while subordinate areas remain in the shadows. It can bring rhythm and continuity to a room’s furnishings by linking together the various points of emphasis.

Artificial light should provide adequacy, consistency and uniformity of illumination without flickering or glare & an absence of shadows. Light may be produced by the combination of sub. Common forms of artificial light: electric lamps, non electric lamps

NON ELECTRIC                   ELECTRIC

Non electric includes Oil lamps, Petrol lamps, paraffin lamps

Oil lamps : There are 2 distinct ways in which oil may be used for lighting.

• By using a wick that is by capillary action
• By vaporizing the oil & burning it with air.

The container should be of metal as there is less risk of breakage. The chimney should be fire proof. A shade is necessary because there is too much glare on a level which the eyes from un-shaded lamps.

Petrol lamps: Lamps in which petrol vapor is mixed with air are superior to ordinary oil lamp. Oily or waxy substances extracted after distillation from petroleum

Paraffin lamps: They involve a great deal of lab our in cleansing, trimming & filling the lamps. They have the disadvantage of blackening the walls or ceiling & giving slight smell of petroleum. The metal burner is well perforated to allow ad mixture of air with paraffin vapor to ensure a good combustion. The flame is shelled by a chimney.

Guidelines for good Artificial Lighting:

• Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than incandescent lamps. Fluorescent lamps produce 50 to 60 lumens per watt, where as incandescent lamps produce 10 to 17 lumens per watt. The life of fluorescent lamp is four times longer than the incandescent lamp.
• Luminaries should be located at a height of minimum 2.1 m above the floor level, except for some special reasons.
• The normal reflectance may be assumed for ceiling (white) as 0.7 watts (off white) as 0.5 watts and floor (grey) as 0.3 watts.
• Location of light points should be on longer walls.
• Periodic cleaning of luminaires is necessary to keep up their efficiency.
• Interior surfaces should be painted with bright colors for good surface reflection.
• General illumination in a room should satisfy the brightness ratio of 1: 10. The most important activity performed should be considered for deciding the illumination.
• The number of light points should be decided based on the floor area space and the importance of the activity performed. For example, in residences single linght point is sufficient up to 12 sq.m and two light points are required for floor area up to 22 sq.m.
• Glare of a luminaire can be reduced by use of dimmers or by using baffles, louvers or diffusers. 

SOURCES OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

There are two common sources of artificial light – the incandescent bulb/filament lamps and the fluorescent tube. Light bulbs and tubes can be grouped in general categories according to the way they produce light. They are installed in ceiling fixtures, floor and table lamps, and structural light designs that direct the light to where it is to be used.

1.Filament lamps: Incandescent bulb and halogen lamps 

Incandescent light source

The incandescent light is the kind used most frequently in our homes. The light here is produced by a tungsten thread that bums slowly inside a glass bulb. Wattage of bulb ranges from 10-22 lumens/watt.

Halogen lamps: These give off whiter light. Lamp life ranges hot glass and gets extremely hot, requiring special protection for safety. Halogen PAR lamps are used in residential down lighting, outdoor lighting, hotels, motels especially in retail display.

 2.Electric discharge lamps: These are inclusive of fluorescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps, sodium lamps and neon lamps.

Fluorescent Tubes

Fluorescent light is produced when electrical energy and mercury vapour creates an arc that stimulates the phosphorous coating on the inside of the tube, and the light spreads evenly from the entire surface of the tube, it spreads in all directions, creating a steady, shadow less light. Tubes require a ballast to ignite and maintain the electrical flow called a choke.

Fluorescent tubes last for longer period than incandescent bulbs. Unique advantage of fluorescent sources is their linear quality, which is handy in lighting some architectural elements such as valances, coves, cornices and brackets and for installations along the length of a surface such as study table, kitchen cabinets and shelves. It is 3-4 times more efficient i.e, 46-58 lumens per watt.

The fluorescent tube installation is complicated and the fixtures are also costly. However, the tubes last longer, keeps the environment cooler, require fewer fixtures, produce less glare and use from one-third to one fifth less electricity than’ incandescent light bulbs, which makes up for the initial installation costs.

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL): These convert most of their electrical energy into visible light, producing upto 90 lumens per watt.

High intensity discharge lamps: These are lamps of bulb shape give point light. Extensively used in public spaces, energy efficient producing 50-200 lumens per watt.

Other sources of artificial light are the Quartz halogen bulbs, High intensity discharges and Neon bulbs which are used for specific purposes like the commercial display, whenever very bright light is needed or for specific art display.

General principles of good lighting

1. Not injurious, rather protect our health by minimizing eye strain.
2. It must provide plentiful but glare free light for all kinds of tasks.
3. Provision of spot lights for tasks like sewing, reading etc.
4. No source of light should appear in the visual field of any worker during working operations.
5. As far as possible all lights should be provided with shades
6. Prevent accidents especially at such hazards as in staircases.
7. Ensure absence of harsh shadows.
8. It must create sufficient contrast between dark and light areas to prevent dullness and monotonous.
9. Maintain aesthetic appearance, contribute beauty and individuality to home

REFERENCES:

1. Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner, 1968 (3rd edition), Inside Today’s Home, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, New York.
2. M.Pratop Rao, 2005, Interior Design (Principles and Practice) N.C Jain.
3. Louise J. Peet, Mary S. Pickett and Mildred G. Armold, 1975, Household Equipment 7^th edition, John Wiley and Sons, InC.Canada.
4. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha ,2008, A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
5. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu, 2009, Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
6. Terence Conran, The House Book, Crown Publishers, Inc, New York.
7. http://www.techbites.com/userfiles/145/images/figure_2.jpg

Assignment

1. Identify the type of lighting available and its source in any five households and report it.
2. Conduct a market survey to identify the types of lamps available, their use and cost.

Essay Questions:

1. Explain the sources of lighting for residences.
2. List down the guidelines for good natural and artificial lighting for residence.
3. What are the general principles of good lighting.

Write short notes on:

1. Tips to avoid glare
2. Light and its effects

TYPES OF LIGHTING AND ITS APPLICATION

TYPES OF LIGHTING:

Lighting the interiors needs to be functional and should also be decorative. Three types of lighting are necessary, namely

1. General/ Ambient lighting
2. Task lighting
3. Accent lighting.

1. General/ functional/background lighting:

The lights which are used to light up the room, passages, and staircases are known as ambient or general lighting. General lighting describes the total light available in a room area. It must be sufficient to ensure movement and should be of high intensity for simple tasks. With advancement of technology the general lighting can be provided in various intensities to produce bright, medium or subdued light or dim light such as for watching television. Ambient lighting usually comes from indirect fixtures that provide a diffused spread of illumination. Directional fixtures can also be aimed at a wall to provide a wash of soft light on top of the walls or above doors or windows, from ceiling or wall fixtures, from indirect lamp. Cove lighting or other architectural lighting is inconspicuous and conforms to the lines of the architecture.

2. Focal/Task/local lighting:

Task lighting needs to be provided where high intensity of light is required, like reading, drawing, sewing, darning or high perfection in fine art/ task is desired.  Task lights offer high intensity of lighting without high general illumination.  It illuminates the particular area where the visual activity takes place. Provision for individual fixtures that direct light onto the work surface is essential. Task lighting also helps to define a field of concentration for example, a bright light on a desk surface, for example, tends to fix our attention on work.

Task light is produced in particular places, usually by portable table and floor lamps, but also by straight or curved lighted rods and by lights behind ground glass that is in flush with the wall. Such task lighting are necessary for reading, writing, working, card games and drawings etc.

3. Decorative/ornamental/Accent/ Ambient lighting

Accent lighting provides sufficient light for the specific area/task rather than general illumination. Their uses are many and varied, chiefly to make visual focal points of centers such as coffee table or dining area or high lighting special objects such as accessories in the room. They are supplementary to the general light source which is appreciated. So, accent light chiefly fills an aesthetic need or highlights an area or an art object. Standard picture lights, the wall bracket, strip lamps over bookshelves, table lamp down lighters, up-lighters and wall washers can also give the effect of accent lights. Accent light sources also exist such as special lighting for shelves, niches and up-lighters for plants. The range of such sources encompasses semi-recessed eyeball fittings, surface and track mounted spot lights, together with fully recessed directional fittings. The general and accent lighting needs to be planned according to the atmosphere desired.

The following check list may be used while planning and deciding the lighting:

• To what use will the various areas in home will be allotted.
• What type of light is needed – direct, indirect, static, adjustable, strong or light background.
• Will the amount of light on all horizontal and vertical surfaces be sufficient for the activities/ purposes?
• Is the light sufficient for the activities and the person using the room/area?.
• Are there enough existing sockets, outlets and switches? Are they in the right place? Not only for sockets and switches, but also for wall and ceiling outlets?
• What kind of lamp-shade or fitting will suit the style of the room?
• Is the color of flooring, wall, ceiling are compatible with the lighting? 

Lighting Fixtures (based on direction in which light falls):

All lighting fixtures are classified according to the way they distribute their light. If an imaginary horizontal line is drawn on a level with the source of the light, the amount of light directed above and below the line determines the fixture classification.

Hence depending on the way the distribution of light is effected, lighting/ lighting fixtures can be classified as

1. Direct lighting
2. Indirect lighting
3. Semi-Indirect lighting
4. Semi- direct lighting
5. Diffused lighting

Direct lighting:

The direct lighting is the one which throws all the light downward on the surface to be illuminated. Direct fixtures distribute 90%-100% of the fixture light output below, with the remaining 0%-10% above. 

Indirect lighting: The indirect lighting is the light which directs light on the ceiling and the upper walls from where it is redistributed in well-diffused light throughout the room. Indirect fixtures distribute 90%-100% of the fixture light output above, with the remaining 0%-10% below.

Semi-Indirect lighting: Semi-indirect lighting which may direct approximately 60% of the light toward the ceiling and send 40% downward on a limited area, or vice versa. Semi-Indirect fixtures distribute 60%-90% of the fixture light output above, with the remaining 10%-40% below.

Semi-direct lighting: The semi-direct which distributes 40% over the ceiling and 60% down-ward. Semi- direct fixtures distribute 60%-90% of the fixture light output below, with the remaining 10%-40% above.

Diffused lighting: It emits light in all directions. Normally any incandescent and fluorescent lamps without any shade provide diffused lighting.

The way colors, forms and textures appear to the eye depends upon light, either natural or artificial.

Architectural or structural lighting

Lighting i.e built into the house as part of the finished structure is known as architectural light.

Valance lighting: It is used to light the valances hung on a window. A fluorescent lamp is fixed behind the valances onto the wall which directs all light downward on the wall below behind the valances, so that they bring out the beauty of the draperies.

Cove lighting: It is used to light the ceiling and provide indirect light for the room. Lamps are mounted above a shelf like element i.e. installed high on a wall just below the ceiling. Standing in the room, once can’t see the light source itself – can see only the light bouncing off the wall and ceiling above the cove.

Cornice lighting: It is installed on the ceiling a few inches out from the wall and directs all light downward. It is used to light floor –to-ceiling book shelves and full length draperis.

Soffit lighting: It is used for task lighting. It is found under kitchen cabinets, over sink or over wash basins in bathroom, built-in dressing tables, and over bathroom mirrors.

Luminous ceiling lighting: In this case, entire ceiling will be covered in some cases, while others cover only a section of the ceiling area. The fluorescent lamps are mounted on a flat, white surface behind the diffusing panels. They provide general lighting, ideal for kitchens, laundries, bathrooms, work shops, home offices etc.

Luminous wall lighting: It is a panel, section or entire wall that emits light. It is usually used for its decorative value. Its construction is similar to the luminous ceiling lighting.

Strip lighting: Fluorescent lamps are installed in a continuous run around the sky light.

Recessed lighting: This is among the widely used architectural general lighting devices, usually in fluorescent lamps or CFL. Lamps are placed at regular intervals on the ceiling.

Track lighting: It uses an electrical track that can be ceiling mounted or hung. It is particularly useful for display and gallery lighting. This system has many types of adjustable lighting units which give both general and spot lighting as per the requirement.

Based on the location:

a.Wall lighting: It is inclusive of luminous walls, cove lighting, valance lighting and wall mounted units. The first three types have already been discussed earlier. While wall mounted units include wall brackets, wall mounted uplights, and wall mounted reflector lamps.

Wall brackets are useful in corridors or at stairs and in bathrooms and dressing rooms. Wall mounted reflector lamps are used for reading and bed side lamps. Wall mounted uplights provide indirect, general light.

b.Ceiling lighting: It includes cornice lighting, luminous ceiling, recessed lighting. Other than these it is inclusive of the following types

surface mounted down light – used for corridors, lobbies, meeting spaces, and malls.

Eye ball:  these provide direct light that can be adjusted to any desired angle.

Pendants: these are decorative lights that hang from the ceiling, used in stores, hotels and restaurants. Now-a-days it is used in residential kitchens and dining areas.

Chandeliers: these are ornate luminaires consist of many small incandescent lamps. They are hung from the ceiling and are used for general illumination in dining rooms, foyers and other formal spaces.

Outdoor lighting: outdoor living areas have become such an important part of our way of life that they should have special mention with respect to lighting. Requirements for outdoor lighting differ from those for interiors. We are not so likely to need light for close work such as reading and sewing. We are however, concerned with functional light that will enable us to cook outdoor needs at night and also with the decorative qualities of outdoor lighting.

Based on movement:

Fixed lamps: all types of wall and ceiling lights are of this type.

Portable lamps: these can be moved from one place to other place. It is inclusive of floor lamps and bed  or reading lamps. These lamps give localized light. These are used for reading, sewing, studying etc.  These can give indirect or direct lighting and are used beside chairs, sofas, pianos, beds and on desks and for make up.

Features of portable lamps:

1. Floor or table lamps should be tall enough to give a good spread of light.
2. It should have a wide shade, diffuser and large wattage bulb.
3. It should be sturdy enough.
4. It should have long cord so that the lamp can be moved without any restriction.
5. The shades of the portable lamps should be deep enough to conceal the bulb. Shades should be translucent, light in colour and are normally made of glass, fabric, straw, paper and plastic.
6. Lamp bases are available in different styles. These are made of porcelain, glass, wood, stone, metal and plastic.

Lighting requirements in different rooms:

Type of lighting to be used in a room depends on the type of activities carried on in the room, which of course varies from one family to another. Light is measured in terms of foot candles.

General guides:

There should be at least one light in a room that can be controlled by a switch at the entrance. If there is more than one entrance, light should be controlled at each entrance.

Ceilings should be light in colour but not glossy because glossy ceilings create glaring. When lighting is provided in any room consider beauty, function and safety.

Entrance: It should have a fixture placed at either side of the door or above it to direct light on the steps and on the faces of visitors.

Living room: Illumination levels should be 7-8 foot candles to 25-30 fc. It should have general lighting, and local lighting for reading, sewing purposes.

Bed room: A central fixture is essential for general illumination to view the things and to clean the room. Additional lighting is needed for reading in bed and putting on make up.

Dining room: The table is the central point of interest. Light should be provided above the table by using ceiling mounted, chandeliers or pendant lighting.

Bathroom: It can have one general light on wall or ceiling and one local light above the mirror.

Kitchen: It requires the even distribution of light specifically on work areas like sink, range, and work surfaces. It also can have one general lighting and two or three local lights above sink, stove and work surface. 

The assessment of lighting requirement in general can be made using the simple formula, as follows.

Recommended Lumens for Different Areas in a home are:

Living room                80 Lumen per sq.ft.

Dining room                45 Lumen per sq.ft.

Kitchen                       80 Lumen per sq.ft.

Bathroom                    65 Lumen per sq.ft.

Bedroom                     70 Lumen per sq.ft.

Hallway                       45 Lumen per sq.ft.

REFERENCES:

1. Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner 1968 (3rd edition) Inside Today’s Home, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, New York.
2. M.Pratop Rao 2005 Interior Design (Principles and Practice) N.C Jain.
3. Louise J. Peet, Mary S. Pickett and Mildred G. Armold (1975), Household Equipment 7^th edition, John Wiley and Sons, InC.Canada.
4. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
5. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu(2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
6. Terence Conran, The House Book, Crown Publishers, Inc, New York.
7. Etienne Grandjean, 1978, Ergonomics of the Home, Taylor and Francis Ltd, London

Assignment

1. Collect pictures which depict different types of ligting used in the commercial and residential interiors.
2. Identify the lighting fixtures and type of lighting used in various rooms.

Essay Questions:

1. Explain the different types of lighting for the interiors.
2. Explain the different methods of lighting in interiors.
3. Write a note on lighting fixtures.
4. Write down the lighting requirements for any four different rooms in a house. 

Write short notes on

1. Task lighting
2. Accent lighting
3. Directional light
4. Lighters and down lighters.
5. Reflected light
6. Recommended lighting
7. Lighting for exteriors

TYPES OF FURNITURE

Furniture in French means things which further or promote convenience. Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body, provide storage, or hold objects on horizontal surfaces above the ground. Storage furniture is used to hold or contain smaller objects such as clothes, tools, books, and household goods. Furniture can be a product of artistic design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture’s functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture works to create, in conjunction with furnishings such as clocks and lighting, comfortable and convenient interior spaces. Furniture can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood.

Four needs are fulfilled by furniture i.e.

1. a place to sit down
2. a place to lie down
3. a place at which to work or eat
4. a place in which to store belongings

Furniture also contributes to the visual character of interior settings.

BUILT-IN FURNITURE

Built – in furniture comprises of storage units and cabinets. Mostly these are rooted furniture pieces which take permanent space on wall & floor. A wardrobe (sometimes called an “armoire“) is a standing closet used for storing clothes. The earliest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until some degree of luxury was attained in regal palaces and the castles of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided for the sumptuous apparel of the great. The name of wardrobe was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with cupboards and lockers, the drawer being a comparatively modern invention. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, evolved slowly

Features of built-in furniture:

1. Promotes flexible living
2. Takes less room than movable pieces
3. Leave maximum amount of free space around and between them
4. Minimize dust catching crevices
5. Give a feeling of permanence and security
6. Breakup the boxiness of typical rooms
7. Reduces the visual clutter brought by unit furniture

Types of built- in furniture: It includes various storage units and cabinets

A space for storing goods, the act of storing goods or the state of being stored is known as storage unit.

There are four categories of storage units: Base, wall, tall and special purpose.

Base unit: These are dual purpose, providing both storage space and working surfaces. The heights and depths of base units vary and are usually dictated by the dimensions of built-in appliances and needs and preferences of individual home owners.

Wall units: Usually wall mounted above work surfaces and appliances. These units can also be hung from the ceiling to serve island or peninsular fixtures. The height of these depends on the ceiling height of the kitchen and personal preferences.

Tall units: The name indicates, extending from the floor to the top of the other wall units; or even higher, depending on personal preferences.

Special-purpose units: There is an almost limitless variety of designs, especially among the base units cabinets that house a sink; accommodate a built-in microwave oven, range, eye-level oven or fridge; units with pull-out boards, with roll-around, slide out, pull-out racks; corner carousel units, knife storage cupboards and most usual of all, units that come with adjustable shelving.

Armoire: Tall cupboard used as a wardrobe or storage chest.

Bachelor: Low chest of drawers with small proportions. Top may be extended to form a table or top drawer may open to form a desk.

Book cases: With adjustable shelves, open/closed

Cabinets: are with doors and adjustable shelves, radio and TV cabinets are integrated with other cabinets and book shelves used for storing, displaying and organizing items.

Unit furniture is a piece of furniture which stands alone or a part of a group of furniture. There are different types of unit furniture used in interiors. Eg: beds, sofas, chairs, tables, screens, benches etc.

Beds

Bed is a piece of furniture or a location used as a place to sleep. It is used to reduce physical strain to a minimum. Bed is a piece of furniture used as a place to sleep, and as a primary place for relaxation.

Types of beds

There are various types of beds available. They are:

Bunk bed: A bunk bed is two or more beds one on top the other. It is more than one bed, usually two, placed one on top of the other, like seen in the picture. It is one of the most common space saving option available. It is used commonly in children’s bedrooms.

Cot: It is a small scaled narrow bed. It is very convenient option for small children and a space saving design.

Day bed: It is a type of couch, originally, that as the name suggests, can be used as a bed during the day. The armrests on both the ends are of equal height.

Four poster bed: It has four elongated posts on each corner of the bed that supports a tester. Hence the name is derived. It has a very traditional and royal appeal.

Sleigh bed: The headboard and footboard of the bed curve outwards, resembling an old fashioned sleigh.

Sofa bed: It is a sofa that can double as a bed. It is a Space saver and Very useful when more number of people need to be accommodated.

Spool bed: The legs of the bed are twisted, to resemble a spool of thread. The effect only adds to the appearance and appeal, and has no special functionality.

Tester bed: It is the mix of a canopy and a four poster bed. It is basically a canopy or ruffled valance that is supported by four posts to cover the top.

Hammock: It is a piece of suspended fabric used outdoor for relaxing. 

SOFAS

A couch or sofa is a generic term, for an item of furniture designed to seat more than one person. A piece of furniture also called a couch . It is used mostly to sit on, relax and lounge on. It is usually placed in the living and drawing rooms, for a formal seating arrangement. Typically it will have an armrest on either side. They are covered in a variety of textiles or in leather.

Types of Sofa

Camel back sofa: It is characterized by a graceful curve right down the middle of the back and usually upholstered.

Charles of London: It is an upholstered sofa, which usually has short, flat arms.

Lawson: Sturdy, upholstered, club type sofa, with square or key shaped arms.

Loveseat: It is a two seater, initially used to seat a couple, hence the name. It is usually cozy.

Sectional: It consists of separate sectional seating units, that can be used together, to produce different arrangements. Add a lot of variety to the room as they are detachable.

Tete-a-tete: It also a two seater, but the seats face in opposite directions. This particular seating arrangements, help in having easy, private conversations.

Tuxedo: It has sleek and slender proportions. The height of the armrests is equal to the height of the backrest.

Chaise lounge: It’s a long sofa with usually one arm rest, mostly used for relaxing.

CHAIRS

A chair is a type of furniture used for sitting, consisting of a back, and sometimes arm rests, commonly for use by one person.

Types of chairs

Barrel chair: As the name suggests, the back of the chair resembles a barrel in shape. Hence it is a chair with a circular back. It may or may not be upholstered.

Bergere: It is a chair belonging typically to the French style. It is usually an upholstered chair, with exposed wooden frames.

Boston rocker: It is characterized by a wide top rail and a curved seat. It is commonly painted black with a guilt design.

Corner chair: It resembles a diamond in the way it is shaped. It is characterized by a leg placed in the center of the front. It is usually placed against the meeting point of two adjacent walls.

Eames chair: It was designed by Charles Eames, and has been named after him. The seat and back of the chair are molded from the same material. It generally comes along with a futon.

Boudoir: It is a small chair used in lady’s private bed room, sitting room or dressing room.

Fanback chair: It is an upholstered chair, with a rounded back that resembles the shape of a hand fan.

Ladderback chair: It is a chair that can be identified with the help of the horizontal rails or splats, that constitute its back. It gives a contemporary feel.

Ottoman: It is a stool or a bench that is upholstered. It does not have an armrest or backrest.

Side chair: It is a small chair without arms. It is commonly used with dining tables.

Stool: A small seat, with no arms or backrest. The legs are usually attached directly to the base of the seat.

Swivel chair: It a chair that revolves. It is used most commonly in offices and as chairs for computer tables in residences.

Wing chair: It is an upholstered chair, that is characterized by a high back and high side sections, that resemble the wings of a bird.

TABLES

A table is an item of furniture comprising a surface supported by a base or legs. It may be used to hold articles such as food at a convenient or comfortable height when sitting, and is therefore often used in conjunction with chairs.

Types

A dining table is a table designed to be used for formal dining. It can be a 2 seater, 4 seater, 6, seater or 8 seater. It is used in the Dining room area.

A bedside table, nightstand or night table is a small     table or cabinet used in a bedroom, beside a bed or elsewhere. It is often used for convenient placement of a small lamp, alarm clock, glasses, or other personal items.

An occasional table is a small decorative table.

A corner table is placed in the corners of living room usually to place decorative items. It has three legs and is placed in the corner of the wall.

A butterfly table is a small drop-leaf table whose leaves are supported by a swinging support. The wings can be extended and made into a long table when needed, otherwise dropped down.

A card-table is a small, square table, usually with folding legs, used mainly for playing card games.

A coffee table is a style of long, low table designed for use in a living room, in front of a sofa, for convenient placement of drinks, books or other personal items, to be used while sitting.

A dinette is a small table and set of matching chairs for used for dining 2-4 people, usually seen in kitchen or living area.

A dressing table is a low table with mirror or mirrors where one sits while dressing or applying makeup provided with one or two rows of drawers.

End tables are small tables typically placed beside couches or armchairs. Often lamps will be placed on an end table.

A console table may be used as an accent table for displaying accessories or other decorative items. It may also be used to hold a small lamp in areas that need additional lighting, such as hallways or entryways. A console table usually sits against a wall and may even be attached to the wall.

1. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
2. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu(2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
3. Reader Digest-Complete Book of Home Decorating (inspiring ideas and practical techniques to bransform home) 2001 published by Reader’s Digest.
4. http://interiordec.about.com/od/decoratingroombyroom/a/ArrangeLivingRoomFurniture.htm?nl=1
5. G:\space furniture\Living Room Furniture  Living Room Furniture Styles & Designs  Living Room Furniture Ideas.htm
6. Anna Hong Rutt,1969, Home Furnishing Second Edition, Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.
7. Goldstein Harriet and Goldstein Vetta, 1954,Art in Everyday Life, Fourth Edition, Macmillan Publishing, Co,Inc. 

Assignment

1. Collect pictures related to different types of sofas, tables and beds discussed in the lesson.
2. Identify different multipurpose furniture used in interiors and paste the pictures in scrap note book.

Long answer questions

1. Explain the materials used for
2.  Explain in brief the different types of chairs
3. Explain the furniture by materials used.

Write short notes on

1. Explain the term modular furniture.
2. Define the term ‘upholstering’
3. List different types of bed
4. State the characteristics of modern furniture

MATERIALS AND FINISHES USED FOR FURNITURE

Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body (seating furniture and beds), provide storage, or hold objects on horizontal surfaces above the ground. Storage furniture (which often makes use of doors, drawers, and shelves) is used to hold or contain smaller objects such as clothes, tools, books and household goods.

Furniture includes objects such as tables, chairs, beds, desks, dressers, cupboards, etc. usually kept in a house or other building to make it suitable or comfortable for living or working in. Furniture can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints.

Furniture can be broadly classified into:

Storage (Armoire, Bookcase, Cabinet, Cupboard, Wardrobe etc.)

Seating (Bean bag, Bench, Chair, Sofa, Stool etc.)

Surfaces (Desk, Table etc.)

Sets (Bedroom set, Dining set etc.)

Sleeping (Bed, Headboard)

Other (Hutch, Folding screen, Garden furniture etc.)

Furniture by materials

Wooden Furniture

Aluminum Furniture

Brass Furniture

Steel Furniture

Wrought Iron Furniture

Silver Furniture

Gold Furniture

Leather Furniture

Plastic Furniture

Glass Furniture

Stone Furniture

Bamboo Furniture

Wooden Furniture

Wood is the all-time favoured material for furniture construction. Excellent quality lumber is reserved for use where good appearance and finishing are required and the common lumber that has defects is usually used for construction and other general-purpose projects.

Advantages of wood:

1. Natural colour of the wood is indicated by the ability of wood to take stains and bleaches.
2. Lovely textures, grain patterns are enriched by polishing.
3. Wood can be carved to a range of decorative effects.
4. Wood is sturdy and durable if properly treated and handled.

Disadvantages:

1. Wood absorbs and loses moisture which sometimes causes warping and splitting if it has not been properly “seasoned”. This process refers to the drying of wood after one tree has been cut and must be done under carefully controlled conditions to ensure excellence of quality.
2. Wood has great strength across the grain while weak along the grain which accounts for the splitting of improperly handled wood.
3. The characteristics and arrangement of fibres in the wood are responsible for the ability of wood to hold nails and screws and the ability to absorb paints and stains.

Maple and birch have fine grain.

Oak has coarse or open grain.

Mahogany and walnut has medium grain.

4. A cross-section of a tree trunk reveals the fibre arranged in annual rings or concentric circles. “Crotch” figures occur at points where the trunk divides to form branches Swirl patterns are found above the roots.

Trees that form many small branches have knots that provide an interesting pattern.

Abnormal growths on the tree trunk produce unusual patterns, known as birch, responsible for beautifully figured grains.

Types of Wood

Hardwood

Hardwood is taken from deciduous trees. The deciduous trees have broad, flat leaves that fall off after maturity and produce a fruit or nut and generally go dormant in the winter. They grow well in temperate climates include oak, ash, cherry, maple and much more. Certain hardwood species are not hard enough to withstand heavy wear and thus, are not recommended for flooring. Most hardwoods are stronger and hold nails and screws more securely.

Mahogany

This variety of hardwood is finely grained and has a reddish brown colour. Being highly durable, mahogany resists swelling, shrinking and warping. It is extensively used for quality furniture such as cabinets, boat construction, wood facings and veneers. Mahogany is classified under two heads; namely Spanish mahogany, and Honduras mahogany or baywood.

Walnut

Walnut is a strong and finely textured hardwood. The lumber resists shrinking and warping and is very easy to work with. It is used for making gunstocks, solid and veneered furniture, novelties, cabinetry and wall panelling. Its high strength lends itself to skin, tapered legs and other parts that withstand strain. English and black walnut are the most common types used in furniture making.

Oak

Many species are found in North America, Asia, Europe and Africa. An exclusive variety of hardwood, Oak possesses good bending qualities in addition to its durability. It finishes well and resists moisture absorption. The hardwood is good for furniture, trimming, boat framing, desks and flooring. It has a coarse ‘open’ grain which is suited to various colour effects and special finishes.

Maple

Maple is finely textured wood variety with immense strength and hardness. With moderate shrinkage, this lumber machines well and is best used in flooring, fine furniture and woodenware such as bowling alleys. It resists splitting and is easy to shape.

Fruitwood

Cherry, apple and pear woods are most commonly used Fruitwoods. Both apple and pear are smooth, fine grained woods that are light in colour. They are rarely used except for decorative trim and inlay work on fine furniture.

Cherry

Being close-grained, this type of hardwood resists warping and shrinking. The wood has a distinct feature of reddening when exposed to sunlight. It ages well and is extensively used in cabinet making, boat trim, novelties and solid furniture handles. It is strong, durable and moderately hard. It is reddish brown in colour. Cherry furniture is likely to be expensive because there is much wastage in cutting the logs.

Rosewood

Rosewood is very hardwood variety with a dark reddish brown colour. The wood type possesses exclusive fragrance and is close grained. It is hard to work and takes high polish. It is good for use in making musical instruments, piano cases, tool handles, art projects, veneers and furniture. It is native of India and Brazil.

Birch

It is strong and versatile hardwood. It is relatively low priced, hence used for doors, floors, wood trim, plywood and structural parts of furniture. It has pale golden brown colour and takes paints and stains extremely well.

Teak

Teak is hard, dense, durable and moisture resistance wood variety. It resists warping, cracking and decay and is best used in fine furniture, panelling, ship-building, doors, window framing, flooring and general construction. If teak furniture is to be used in indoors, and away from a lot of natural sunlight, over a period of time, perhaps 6 months to a year, the wood will gradually become a darker shape of brown. It is more native to India, Burma and surrounding areas.

If teak furniture is left outdoors, the effects of sunlight will bleach out the timber’s natural colour, gradually turning it to a soft silvery grey colour. The silvery grey “patina”, which develops over time, gives teak furniture a distinctive appearance. The silver grey colour resulting from this natural ageing process is considered to be attractive, and allows the furniture to blending well with many outdoor environments. Teak is also a great material for garden furniture.

There are some distinct advantages of teak wood:

Durable and strong

Teak has many advantages over other. The first and most significant advantage is that teak is a strong, durable and beautiful hardwood from India, Thailand or Malaysia. This exotic material was first used in a middle ages as a ship building material, so it had to be strong to endure the long voyages at sea.

Waterproof

After the ships were decommissioned, the boats with teak material was still salvageable, since teak did not rot or rust, even when joined with metal. This is one of the reasons that teak is such a great material used to make garden furniture. So, if teak could survive long trips on the harsh ocean, imagine how well it will stand up.

Low maintenance

Some furniture can be extremely high maintenance. Some materials attract dirt and grime more than other materials however, not teakwood. Teak, on other hand has very low maintenance.

Solid Wood

Some furniture is entirely made of solid wood. The logs of a tree are cut into boards of varying thickness and wood sawed in this manner is called lumber.

Veneer

It refers to a thin slice of wood. Several layers of wood usually 3, 5 or 7 are arranged with the lengthwise grain in alternate direction to form plywood. All layers are glued together with synthetic resin that provides a very secure bond. The centre layer or “core” is usually thicker than others.  Because of the plastic glues and alternating grains plywood is equally strong lengthwise and crosswise and is therefore often more stable than solid wood. The top layer of veneer is often cut from a log selected for beauty of grain, colour and texture. Sheets are laminated into a solid block of wood, which is then sliced at right angles to the layers. In this manner it is possible to produce veneer and vertically striped patterns.

Shesham

It is a rich medium brown wood with deep grains. It is a part of the rosewood family. It is one of the hardest woods available. Furniture made from this has an original grain which gives it a very rich and elegant look. The wood variety is highly used in durable, easily carved and is exclusively used for making furniture, almirahs and cabinets. It is also known as Indian rosewood.

Gum

It is readily available and relatively inexpensive. It is easy to work and the close, smooth grains take finishes extremely well. It is often used for framework, posts and legs that must be made of solid wood.

Ash

It is mostly used in frames and unexposed parts. The natural colour ranges from white to a light brown.

SOFTWOOD

It is a coniferous tree species with needle or scale like leaves that are retained all the year. Coniferous trees are evergreen cone-bearing trees. They include cedar, fir, hemlock, pine, redwood and spruce. They are often used as structural lumbar with decorative applications.

Pine

Pine possesses a uniform texture and is very easy to work with. It finishes well and resists shrinkage, swelling and warping. The wood variety is widely used in house construction, panelling, furniture, moulding and for making boxes. Since it is a softwood, found in unpainted furniture, rustic designs and in expensive cabinet work and used on panel walls.

Advantages of pine furniture:

There are many advantages to purchasing pine furniture for one’s home or office space. The first advantage to purchasing pine furniture is that it blends well with many other types of furniture materials. Since the colour of pine is quite neutral, it will blend in nicely with other furniture materials and will not stand out in an offensive manner. It also blends with various paint colours and wallpapers so that it will go nicely in most rooms that already have these colours or wallpapers in place.

Another advantage to purchasing pine furniture is the cost of the furniture. This type of wood is much less expensive than other types of wood. This is an extremely beneficial aspect as most individuals are looking to save as much money as they can whenever it is possible to do so. The price factor is definitely an important variable to consider when looking to purchase furniture.

Pine is also a sturdy type of wood. For those who are looking to purchase furniture items which will hold together nicely, pine furniture is a good type to consider purchasing. One can usually construct furniture in a sturdy manner when using pine as their wood of choice.

Disadvantages of Pine Furniture

One disadvantage of pine furniture is that although this type of wood makes a sturdy piece of furniture, the wood itself is one that can experience dents and scratches more easily than other types of wood. Therefore, if one is concerned about scratching their furniture or getting possible dents in it, perhaps another type of wood should be considered. However, quite a few people like that pine wood gets a weathered look to it and have no problem with possible dents and scratches that may occur to the pine furniture.

Hemlock

This wood variety is lightweight and machines well. Being no resinous, it is uniformly textured and has low resistance to decay. It is used for construction lumber, planks, doors, boards, panelling, sub flooring and crates.

Douglas Fir:

Douglas Fir is a wood variety with uniform texture and low resistance to decay. It is non-resinous, works easy and finishes well. Fir’s light rosy colour, which darkens over time when exposed to UV rays, is set off by its remarkably straight grain pattern. The tough fibre holds fasteners well and it machines to an exceptionally smooth, glossy surface. When dry, Douglas Fir retains its shape and size without shrinking, swelling, cupping, warping, bowing or twisting. Such characteristics make Douglas Fir ideal for all types of trim and joinery applications: fascia, doors, millwork, window and door casings, mantels, stairs and baseboards. Fir is good for use in furniture, doors, frames, windows, plywood, veneer, general millwork and interior trim.

Redwood

Being light in weight, Redwood is durable and easy to work with. It has a natural resistance to decay and is good for making outdoor furniture, fencing, housed siding, interior finishing, veneering and panelling.

Spruce

Spruce is a strong wood variety that finishes well and has low resistance to decay. It possesses moderate shrinkage and is light in weight. Thus, good for use in making for masts and spars for ships, aircraft, crates, boxes, general millwork and ladders.

Cedar

Cedar has a sweet odour and is reddish in colour. It is very easy to work with, uniform in texture and is resistant to decay. Cedar is extensively used in chest making, closet lining, shingles, posts, dock planks, novelties and Venetian blinds.

The advantages of Cedar for Outdoor Furniture:

Cedar is a lightweight and dimensionally stable wood that lies flat and stays straight. Which means it resists the natural tendency to crack and check, as you might find in many other wood species.

Western Red Cedar has incredible thermal co-efficient, meaning even on hot days, it is extremely cool to sit in. western Red Cedar fibre contain oils that act as natural preservatives to help the wood resist rot and decay,  making it excellent furniture material for moist or humid climates. These properties also make Cedar a very popular material for hot tub and sauna areas.

Bamboo Furniture

Bamboo furniture has a light, earthy feel that is perfect for open areas like porches, patios and balconies. When properly constructed, it can have the same structural integrity as many hardwoods, but being a grass; it is much lighter and more versatile.
Because of its high resistance, bamboo makes great storage pieces such as bookshelves and cabinets. The lighter varieties are commonly used for stools and dressers, while sturdier ones are made into larger tables and sofas. Many people accent their existing furniture with bamboo veneers, mats, and curtains.

SOLID WOODS AND VENEERS-

Solid wood refers to the parts of the piece of furniture made from one piece of wood, such as legs in chairs or tables. a veneer is a thin layer of finishing wood applied to the body of a less refined wood. With advanced methods of cutting and adhering veneers, a piece of veneered furniture can be stronger and more resistant to warping than a solid wood piece.

OTHER FORMS OF WOOD IN FURNITURE-

Plywood commonly used in building construction is made by laminating together a number of thin layers of wood, with the grain of each layer turned 90 degrees.

Particleboard does not warp as easily as plywood, it is commonly used as a base in veneer furniture construction.

MDF (medium density board) fibre board is frequently used for cabinet door panels and moulding and as a base for laminated surfaces.

Metals

Brass, steel and wrought iron are used for legs, frames and trim on various types of furniture. Metals are strong and durable, suitable for indoor and outdoor use, can be easily moulded and shaped. Joining by bolts, rivets or welding is secure and sturdy.

Aluminum Furniture

Aluminum patio furniture used to be associated only with folding chairs that wood easily rust and wood last for only a couple of years; but with the advent of technology, those undesirable results have been solved.

Advantages

It is Economical. It is so light weight compared to wood and other materials like wrought iron. Other than making aluminum outdoor furniture easier to move around, its ductile characteristic makes it easier to work within a manufacturing stand point adding a greater reason for it to be inexpensive. It is durable.

Its sturdy and durable quality makes it ideal for outdoor furniture use. It withstands weather conditions;  easily washed with soap and is light in weight.

Disadvantages:

It somehow lacks the same sophistication that wood patio furniture has. Another disadvantage to aluminum patio furniture is the fact that they can’t quite be as comfortable as wooden patio furniture. It also tends to be uncomfortable because of the fact that it heats up quite quickly. It tends to get dirt quite easily.

Wrought Iron Furniture : The most common wrought Iron furniture is wrought iron patio furniture.

Silver, brass, bronze and gold are also used for making chairs, thrones and tables. Silver Sofa Sets, Silver Chairs, Silver Stools, Silver Settee, Silver Coffee Table, Silver Doors, Silver Swings, Silver Screens, Silver Trolley, Silver Windows, Silver Beds, Silver Benches, Silver Desks, Silver Tables, Silver Cabinets, Silver Sideboards, and so on are silver furniture available in the market.

Due to its high strength and durability, the silver furniture can be found in the house of affluent people.

Steel, a combination of iron and carbon, is the most commonly used metal in furniture construction. When formed into sheets, this metal is used in office furniture.

Advantages of Steel Furniture
When perfectly designed, steel furniture lends elegance and an aristocratic look to the living room. Some advantages of using steel furniture:

• High corrosion resistance
• Fire and heat resistance
• Hygienic, non-porous, surface
• Easy cleaning ability
• Aesthetic appearance
• Bright and easily maintained surface
• Strength-to-weight advantage
• Long-term value

Brass living room furniture is unique and elegant which adds style as well as strength to varied designs of furniture. Brass furniture works in alliance with furnishings such as clocks and lighting to create beautiful interior spaces. Brass furniture for indoor usually concentrates on the traditional antique style but in more recent time has expanded to offer some of the more contemporary designs.

Brass furniture works in conjunction with furnishings such as clocks and lighting to create comfortable and convenient interior spaces. Brass metal furniture provides a distinctive touch with stunning style and handcrafted artistry and delicate artwork. Usually, the frame is made of brass. Some furniture has wood/metal combination.

Advantages of Brass Furniture
Brass furniture is ergonomic indoor room furniture helpful in making even the simple decor look attractive. Few benefits of using them are:

• Reflects high class
• Known for its excellent corrosive resistance
• Outstanding look
• Brass is easily machined to melt & bent so as to get the desired shape you want

Excellent plating, polishing and finishing features
Disadvantage of Brass Furniture
Brass is prone to a blackish tarnish and hence requires a good deal of maintenance.

Leather Furniture:

Leather is handsome, masculine, and, with a little care, extremely durable. Leather furniture not only looks nice, but it is also very comfortable. Very often this furniture can be found in the fronts of showrooms because it is attractive to the eyes and pleasant to the touch. These are usually fairly expensive to buy. Different types of leather used for making furniture are grain leather, dyed leather, natural leather, Nubuck leather, suede, Embossed leather etc.
Advantages

Leather is beautiful, pleasant to the touch and has remained one of the most sought after materials in decorating.

Leather furniture stays cool in the summer and warm in the winter giving added comfort to the home.

It stretches and moulds to the natural curves of the body while retaining its shape. Leather is tear and puncture-resistant.

Varying grains and finishes will give the leather furniture its overall look and feel. The beauty of leather furniture is that each piece can reflect your own personality and style.

Disadvantages

One of the biggest disadvantages is that if there is a rip or tear in leather, it can be difficult to fix and nearly impossible to hide.

If you have pets, it may not be a good idea to invest in leather living room furniture.

Before leather is processed into a furniture coating, leather is to be intensively processed – most of all with chemical materials. This process is called leather tanning without which leather would not have long-term characteristics – the leather decay would simply get started.

Glass/Fibreglass Furniture
Glass furniture is a part of modern furniture Glass furniture imparts a sense of delicacy and character to the furniture. The glass components create a minimal appearance and the cleanest lines and maximize the items being displayed. Glass is used for making stools, chairs, table tops, tables etc.

Fibreglass, on the other hand, is a composite material made of fine glass fibres woven into a cloth. It is then bonded together with a synthetic plastic or resin. The greatest advantage of using fibreglass furniture is its strength and stiffness combined with its lightness. It is ideal for home, office shelving, retail interiors, shops, showrooms, exhibitions, tradeshows, point of sale and lots more.

Plastic Furniture

One of the biggest reasons that people have for buying plastic patio furniture is the fact that this tends to be much cheaper than other types.

Another great thing about plastic patio furniture is the fact that it’s lightweight.

Too much heat or cold will quickly cause your plastic patio furniture’s structure to deteriorate. Because of this, you truly need to take care of your plastic patio furniture properly. Water stains easily appear on plastic patio furniture and you should definitely try to avoid that.

Stone Furniture

A stone chair is not any harder than a wood chair and does not require cushions to be comfortable.
Unlike wood or traditional fabrics, stone furniture has the therapeutic ability to retain heat from the sun, which gently warms and sooths tired muscles.

Types of wood finishes
Wooden furniture are given different finishes which makes the surface of wood smooth, and adds shine and richness to the colors of the furniture. Finishing is very essential because bare wood is highly susceptible to moisture changes and this leads to constant expansion and contraction. With wood finishing, not only wood gets an attractive look but also wood becomes susceptible to the variations in humidity. Various wood finishes are

Materials used in Construction of Tables

Tables are made of a variety of woods like Softwood and     Hardwood like Rosewood, Teakwood, Sandalwood, Ebony, Walnut, Oak, Mahogany, Maple, Sheesham, Beech, Cherry etc and are finished with Veneer, Lacquer, Paint, Oil, Wax, Lamination, Varnish, etc.

Aluminium, Brass, Silver and Plastic are also used in construction of tables. Wrought Iron is used in the base or for some decorative purpose in the tables. Metals with inlays in wood, glass, ceramic or metal are also used in construction.

A bench is a piece of furniture, which mostly offers several persons seating. As a rule, benches are made of wood, but one can also find stone benches and benches made of synthetic materials.

The common materials used for making storage units and cabinets are wood, laminated board or timber, steel and plastic laminates. Plastic laminates come in a wide range of colours, are easy to clean, durable and generally less expensive than solid wood.

References

1. G:\Furniture\History of Indian Furniture  Laxmi International Export.htm
2. http://interiordec.about.com/od/decoratingroombyroom/a/ArrangeLivingRoomFurniture.htm?nl=1
3. http://www.furnishingsguide.com/glossary.htm#top
4. Terence Concern’s New House book “The complete Guide to Home Design: 2002 edition.
5. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
6. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu(2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi. 

Assignment

1. Collect the samples of different types of wood used for making furniture.
2. Identify the materials used for making furniture present in your home and report it in the class along with the photographs.

SELECTION, CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FURNITURE 

Factors considered in selection of furniture

The factors considered in selection of furniture in general are the comfort, expressiveness, style, beauty, utility, scale and construction.

1. Comfort

The most important consideration while selecting a piece of furniture is comfort. The livability of a home depends largely on its comfortable furniture items and furnishings. The ready-made furniture available in the market is according to certain standard measurement, considering the average population. People who are larger or smaller inbuilt than the average population standards, needs to go in for customer made or ergonomically designed furniture, which are presently in vogue. Comfort in furniture depends on shape, size, design, materials used, the finish and the workmanship. Upholstered furniture’s are more comfortable than the basic ones.

2. Expressiveness

The theme of the room limits the choice of furniture. For example, a cottage style expresses informality, comfort and simplicity and calls for furniture of the same characteristics. Some of the ideas that are expressed in homes consciously or unconsciously –repose, naturalness, sophistication, intimacy, formality, coolness, delicacy, strength, freshness, antiquity etc. Formal drawing room may include sofa set with coffee table, a rocking chair and a few other furniture items like display units, television, music systems etc.. A room with potted plants and large natural flower arrangements may express freshness. Use of glass and plastics may look modern, where as carved antique and heavy upholstered furniture gives a gorgeous look.

3. Style

Sometimes furniture’s are bought because they represent certain styles. The three possible choices of style can generally be grouped as period/cottage, modern and abstract. The style of construction of the house should also be kept in mind while selecting the furniture style. If the house is constructed in a cottage style, the furniture items used in such a house should also be of the same style. For example, divan has become an important piece of furniture with bolsters and cushions and one or two piris or low stools adorning the living room gives an appeal of traditional/ cottage style. Along with Indian color schemes, these houses present a decor-typically Indian. Modular spaces saving furnitures are well suited for modern homes, which are known for comfort, space saving and good built in storage units.

4. Beauty and character

One general rule to follow as a guide in the selection of furniture is simplicity which is the better choice in the long run. Simplicity should be the thumb rule in the selection of beautiful furniture items along with comfort, expressiveness and style. Simple furniture items are easy to maintain, beautiful, and functional. Modern styles of furniture are simple, beautiful and easy to maintain. Antique and heavily carved furniture are appreciated for their beauty, but collects dust easily and needs a regular dusting and maintenance.

5. Utility

The furniture requirements of every room should be carefully studied and planned. Before making the final purchase, their utility should be analyzed in terms of the space available and their functional utility.

Utility and Economy

• It should serve the purpose
• Space availability
• Convenience- storage, moving, handling etc
• Mobility-packing, shifting, unpacking, light weight, disassembling
• Comfort and Flexibility
• Multipurpose
• Space required
• Length of service
• Cost of maintenance- cleaning, repairing, refinishing, reupholstering, painting, polishing.

Unit furniture usually built against a wall makes the most economical use of space within a room and simplifies cleaning. Storage compartments designed within the furniture can be great space savers. For instances beds may have drawers underneath, useful for storing blankets, linen/other articles. Occasion­ally tables often include space for magazines, books, and lift-up tops can be used to store toys, needlework etc.

The most utilitarian furniture procurable is the modem unit furniture consisting of cupboards, shelves, tables, radio, Television, music systems Wi-Fi recorders, cabinets, desks etc, following units designed to fit into a compact, group. The unit should be in line with architectural features, which gives an effect of the pleasing conti­nuity, simplicity and orderliness.

6. Balance, size and scale (proportion)

The actual dimensions of a piece of furniture are basic in determining its scale and proportions, the way it is designed can sometimes have suitable effects in providing comfort and aesthetically pleasant. A room where most of the furniture is squeezed into one area looks un-balanced.

Draw an imaginary line through the room and balance the furniture placed in each half for symmetrical arrangements. Symmetrical arrangement can help bring a designed feel to a room For example, if an armchair is placed to the left of the fireplace; position another to mirror it on the right hand side. You may not have the space or furniture or inclination to follow this rule completely and then asymmetrical arrangements are more interesting and a challenge to a designer and stimulating for the user.

7. Construction

Well constructed furniture are always an asset because of their durability and satisfactory service. Every piece of furniture should be studied from the point of view of its construction. Drawers, doors, drop-leaves, surfaces, edges and joints to be studied for its workmanship, sturdiness and easy operation.

8. Firmness and rigidity

Firmness depends largely on how the different parts are joined. The legs and frame should be fastened together with glue and also with the dowels, screws, steel clips, and corner metal plates. These joints should not break or make creaky noise when the furniture is put to use. The joints in wood are of various types. Mortise and tenon or dowel are the two common types of joints that are widely used in furniture construction.

Selection factors for case goods

• Rigidity: Sturdy enough
• Construction- shaping of pedestals and legs, carving, turning of legs, posts and bases, fluting i.e, lengthwise grooves cut into posts and legs, reading i.e., decorative process of applying parallel rows of beaded mountings projected from the surface, joining by nails, screws and glue.
• Drawers- should glide back and forth easily
• Glass doors- quality
• Hard ware- style, material
• Hinges- Sturdy and firm
• Supports- for desks and extension tables
• Finishes- Avoid hard shine, uniformity of colour
• Decoration- inlay, carving etc.
• Materials- wood, metal, glass, plastic

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FURNITURE

Glass Furniture Parts–Care and Cleaning

Care
Glass is used for some table tops, and doors of cabinets and bookcases. It resists most chemicals and stains. It can be permanently scratched, so do not move rough objects across it, and do not use abrasives on it. Though table tops are heavy and strong, glass can be broken or cracked by hard blows.
Cleaning
Clean with mild alkaline solution, such as 2 tablespoons ammonia to 1 quart water and polish dry with paper towels. Or a commercial glass cleaner may be used. Be very careful that no glass cleaner gets on the wood surrounding the glass as this can damage the wood finish; if using spray cleaner bottle, spray only centre of glass panel, and spread to edges with cloth, sponge or paper towels.

Solid Wood Furniture Care

Quality wood furnishings are an investment that you expect to last a life time. To maintain its natural beauty and protect your investment, wood furniture needs the right care.

Wood expands and contracts with the variations in temperature and humidity. Expect each piece of solid wood furniture to react differently depending on the type or species of wood used. Laminated woods and veneers are more stable than solid wood planks.

Use and Care
-Tablecloths, runners and table pads are available and provide the most protection during regular and heavy use of your dining table.
-Hot pads should always be used when placing warm serving dishes on a tabletop. Very hot items such as a sauce pan or baking dish should never be placed on a tabletop, even with a hot pad.
-Placemats will help to protect the finish from dishes and silverware, and coasters will help protect your furniture from moisture.
-Tablecloths and table pads provide the most protection from UV (ultra-violet) light, which causes the finish to fade and deteriorate and may even bleach the wood.
-Always use a protective pad when writing with a ballpoint pen on the furniture surface.
-Placing your furniture away from windows or blocking direct sunlight will help to protect your furniture from the damaging UV rays.
-Felt will protect your tabletops from scratches when used on the bottom of lamps, vases and other accessories. Always lift items from a tabletop, avoid sliding items across a table top as this can abrade and scratch the finish and in extreme cases, the wood surface below.
-Never place burning candles on a finished wood surface. As the candle burns down and the wax melts, it can generate and transfer enough heat to damage the finish and wooden surface.
-Avoid using household solvent-based products such as fingernail polish and polish removers around an unprotected finished surface. In case of spills, blot the spill immediately, do not wipe as this will spread the spill and may cause further damage. If the surface has not been damaged, clean and polish the tabletop.
-If the finish has been damaged, call a professional for an evaluation.

Bamboo care

Care and Maintenance:
Bamboo is sensitive to water, so take care not to over-wash it or leave it out in the rain. Clean it occasionally with a dry or damp cloth, and remove dust and grit with a mop or vacuum cleaner. Wipe off spills immediately to prevent stains and water marks. Also avoid scraping with steel wool or any abrasive—they can scratch the laminate and make it brittle.
You don’t have to be a serious conservationist to appreciate bamboo furniture. Its natural beauty makes it stand out even against the most expensive woods, and its neutral tones allow it to fit in with almost any theme. As long as you choose well and take good care of it, your bamboo furniture can give you excellent value for your money. 

General Maintenance and Care of furniture:

Furniture manufacturers today utilize a variety of materials and specialized finishes for indoor and outdoor furniture designed to protect the furniture during regular use. Cleaners, waxes and polishes are available to protect the finish of furniture from scratches and abrasions.

Cleaning and polishing the furniture should be done on a regular basis. Dust attracts moisture, which can accumulate and soften the finish on the furniture, which can lead to further damage, possibly to the wood itself. There are a variety of furniture care products readily available at most department stores, hardware centers and even in supermarkets. Regular care and maintenance will give the years of satisfaction that is expected when purchasing the furniture’s.

Furniture Care Basics

• Dust furniture regularly
• Keep furniture out of direct sunlight.
• Avoid placing furniture in front of or near the windows, to protect from sun and  rain
• Place furniture away from heating and air conditioning vents.
• Blot up the food or any spills immediately.
• Use coasters, placemats and tablecloths to protect furniture during use.
• Lift and place the items instead of sliding across furniture surfaces.
• Rotate accessories on the furniture periodically.
• Avoid prolonged use of plastic and rubber items on the furniture.
• Attend to repair and polish the furniture once a year or as and when needed.
• Use outdoor furniture covers to care and preserve the garden furniture.
• Finishes are applied to a wood surface for protection or for decoration. Protection  of the surface is needed to extend the wearing life.
• Periodic renewing of the finish to remove the accumulation of grime, by using lemon oil polish.
• Wood paneling requires cleaning by sponging with a good paint cleaner.
• For veneered furniture, use steel wool for smoothing and for solid construction, use sand paper for smoothing.
• Any loose or weak parts, dents or small holes should be repaired regularly.
• Shellac is used to guard against dust, dirt and wear.
• Lacquer is a quick drying product used in wood finishing.
• To get a uniformity- colour, dark spots, streaks can be removed by bleaching.
• Wood should be finished to protect it from heat, moisture, alcohol etc.
• Bonding (sealer), staining (to change the colour of a surface), shading (spraying) & high lighting (to clear varnish to give uniform transplant colour), filling (to fill the pores of wood), painting shellac, varnishing, lacquering/ waxing are the techniques used to give a finished look.
• The surface of wood is treated and polished to develop a beautiful colour and glow that comes from much rubbing and polishing.
• Wood should be finished to protect it from heat, moisture, alcohol etc.
• In fine finishing, several applications of stain, glaze, oil or wax are used to produce sleek, satiny textures.

Outdoor Furniture Care

Outdoor living and entertaining has always been a favorite for the family. The selection of materials and styles for the patio, deck, backyard or garden furniture is as varied as ever. The quality of these furnishings has improved. The methods of care for outdoor teak furniture will differ from the care and maintenance needed for the aluminum furniture.

Outdoor furniture covers offer extra protection for garden furniture. Although most outdoor furniture is made up of weather- resistant materials, the necessity of protective covers must not be overlooked. The long-term effects of harsh weather conditions and its natural effects can take its toll in spoiling/damaging the furniture. This can alter the appearance, durability and over all shape of the furniture. So it is vital to use outdoor furniture covers. 

General Outdoor Furniture Care Tips

The following are the tips to maintain the covers of the garden furniture:

1. Remove wooden furniture from standing water.
2. Avoid direct contact with damp soil for extended periods.
3. Dust and Clean outdoor furniture first before putting on the furniture cover.
4. The simplest and easiest way to clean furniture cover is while they are covering the furniture. If there are spotted stains, wash it by using mild soap and water. In case of heavier stains, make use of bleach, mild detergent and water. Spray it on the stained area, then rinse it and dry.
5. Cover the furniture well when not in use.
6. Make sure that the furniture covers are dry before they are kept in storage.
7. Some outdoor furniture finishes require reapplication at regular intervals.
8. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for cleaning and maintaining the finish at regular intervals.

CARE AND CLEANING FOR UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE

To preserve the beauty and longevity of your Smith Brothers furniture, a little periodic care and maintenance can help you avoid the abrasive and prolonged treatments that may be required to restore your furniture after years of use. Here are some basic tips:

• Rotate and flip your cushions regularly to evenly distribute wear. Try to do this once a week.
• We use the best fiber available, but all fibers—even the very best—will lose their “loft” over time and use. This will make cushions and pillows look like they’re sagging or crushed. You can bring back the loft by fluffing your cushions every so often, which distributes the fibers more evenly and keeps the cushions light and soft. Try to do this once a week.
• Don’t expose your upholstered furniture to direct sunlight for long lengths of time.
• Keep your furniture away from extreme temperature or moisture changes.
• Treat spills as soon as possible so they don’t have a chance to dry or set.
• Dab spills with a soft, clean, white cloth or absorbent paper towel. Do not scrub, which can spread the stain and work it deeper into the fabric. Follow our recommended cleaning methods as described below for the type of cleaning code specified. You’ll find the recommended cleaning code on the deck tag under your seat cushions.
• Remove dust and dry stains with a vacuum cleaner or a soft brush attachment every ten to fifteen days.
• For leather upholstery, dust regularly and wipe down the leather with a damp cloth. Never use wax, polish, or oil leather cleaner. Using a soft cloth to buff the leather after cleaning will bring out the patina and add luster to the leather. 

References

1. G:\Furniture\Furniture Care – Furniture Care Tips_com.htm
2. G:\Furniture\Care and Maintenance of Outdoor Furniture Covers.htm
3. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
4. Anna Hong Rutt,1969, Home Furnishing Second Edition, Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi. 

Assignment

1. Conduct a market survey for the furniture maintenance products available along with their costs and submit a report.

Essay questions:

1. Explain the factors considered in selections of furniture for a family.
2. List down the points to be considered while buying furniture for a family.
3. Explain the furniture arrangement for a living room.
4. List down the tips in furniture arrangement for a family.
5. Explain the general maintenance and care of furniture.
6. List down the points for outdoor furniture care and maintenance.

FURNITURE ARRANGEMENT

Arranging furniture is mostly about using empty space around the furniture to create flow in the floor plan. You want people to move around comfortably without bumping into furniture and sit down comfortably without grazing their knees. Careful preliminary plans of orderly arrangement are necessary for the creation of beautiful comfortable rooms.

Factors to be considered in furniture arrangement: In planning the arrangement of furniture for rooms, one must plan places to sit for reading, conversation and relaxing, a place to sleep, a place to eat and places in which to put things.

Goals: Furniture should be arranged a) for convenience of use and 2) for beauty. Convenience means placing the furniture pieces where they are most related and allowing space for traffic lanes. To create a feeling of unity, balance and good proportion, we must consider the scale of the pieces, the balance within the room or floor composition, the use of the room and the wall composition.

Grouping: furniture needs proper or places assigned according to use. Eg: a sofa group would be the center of interest in the room. The key to any furniture arrangement depends upon the openings, the windows, and the doors. Large empty spaces between groups help to achieve a desirable uncluttered effect spaces between groups help to achieve a desirable uncluttered effect in a room. Spaces between the parts of a group should be less than spaces between separate groups. Even a picture that functions as a part of group composition should be hung so low that there is little empty space between it and the furniture below it.

Balance: rooms can be out of balance, when too much furniture is placed in one end of a room. Room should have furniture of equal weight on the opposite side of the room. For eg: sketch a floor plan of your room, then draw a line through the center of the plan, bisecting it length wise and widths. Then group your furniture in such a manner that there is balance of weight, pattern and color between each of the four areas or between any two areas. The balance of wood and of fabric, small pieces against large should be considered.

Balance is the basis of good furniture arrangement; each of the four sides of room should seem about equally heavy to produce a feeling of equilibrium, opposite walls in particular should balance well. Each wall, too should be balanced with equal weight on each half, the highest part should usually be at center.

Either formal or informal balance may be predominating in the room.

Formal balance: is appropriate with formal types of architecture like the Georgian colonial. With formal balance centers of interest such as fire places, sofas, or secretaries are often flanked by a pair of chairs. Too many pairs of articles however are likely to make a room appear stilted, a pair of sofas before fire place and pair of end tables holding a pair of lamps is sufficient. Even a formal room seldom makes use of formal balance exclusively because some irregularity is necessary for relief and charm.

Informal balance is desirable in most houses and is requirement in unsymmetrical types of houses such as the early English, the farm-house types and the modern. A room with irregular openings is more difficult to arrange than a symmetrical room. It requires ingenuity to distribute the masses in such a way that the room feels steady and balanced. When successful, however, informal balance is likely to have more charm than formal balance.

Harmony: do not put large pieces at angles in a room. Avoid putting pieces of large furniture in front of windows; instead keep windows accessible. Unity in line texture, scale and color is necessary within the groups. At the same time variety is needed to stimulate interest, differences in bulk and height are desirable. Texture and color variation provides relief, as illustrated by an upholstered chair in a group of wooden pieces. Interesting group may be composed around important articles of furniture like secretaries, chests, high desks, book cases, large tables or pianos, by adding chairs, lamps, picture and other transition pieces of furniture. Tal pieces should seldom stand in or near corners.

Use and traffic: Leave enough space in front of furniture pieces; eg; 2’ in front of a chair, 3’ around a dining table, 18” for dining chairs (in addition to the width of the chairs), 18” for serving in back of dining chairs, 2’ at the end of the bed and at each side of the bed, if there is a chest of drawers, there must be sufficient space in front of the drawers in order to open and use them. The proportions of the human body determine not only the design but the arrangement of furniture. They determine the space for legs between knees and a table, and the space for seating.

Traffic lanes are important to the satisfactory arrangement of a room. Leave the lanes to doors free for walking, and do not have circuitous routes that have to be traversed before opening door. Clearly defined and sufficient space for passageways and activities must be allowed when making a furniture arrangement plans.

Major traffic lanes should be about 6 feet wide and minor lanes about 4 feet wide. Between the groups of furniture, facing each other in front of fire places 5 to 6 feet are needed. Passage ways must be located so as not to interfere with the function of furniture groups. Approaches to door ways should be kept clear, easy access to radio, fireplace and book shelves is important.

Wall composition: The activities that take place in the room are the important considerations in furniture selection and arrangement. Arrange it for convenience. By grouping furniture where it is used the most and leaving unused areas vacant, a room gains an open feeling. Consider the random heights of furniture in relation to wall composition. A tall breakfront, a low sofa, lamps, table tops, chairs and sofa backs vary in their heights. Furniture should be combined in groups, for service, for conservation of space, and for beauty. These groups are focal centers that make arrangement logical and useful. They are based on activities-conversation, writing, reading and enjoying music.

Today’s approach: since space is the problem, three small tables used separately in a living room may be rearranged as one large table for a dining room. Better to choose mobile and light enough in weight so that it is easily moved. Lightweight upholstered pieces are easy to clean under and are easily moved. Multiple uses of furniture become especially important when one thinks about a one room apartment where room for cooking, eating, entertaining, sleeping, and storage is needed in one room.

Scale: the scale of pieces used in relation to one another should be similar. One large table is better than three small tables in a large room. A room over 25’ in length is considered as a large room. A room over 25’ in length is considered as a large room. A medium room might measure 18’×25’ and below 18’ is considered a small room; so match the size of the furniture to the size of the room. A feeling of space is gained by putting furniture against the wall rather than having it stand out free with the back in the room. Plan the seating around a view window if the window is sizeable. Large seating pieces may serve as room dividers between an eating areas and a living area. Furniture should be arranged to conform to the architecture of a room. Large pieces are always placed parallel to the walls; otherwise they violate steady basic line. Upholstered chairs are placed at angles successfully because they have variety of lines in them selves. Straight chairs look well against walls.

Furniture arrangement should be first planned on paper, since paper patterns are much more easily moved around than the real furniture. Plans must be made in actual scale if they are to be useful. First the floor plans of each room are drawn on squared graph paper, where ¼-inch squares represent 1 foot squares in actuality. The measurement of doors, windows, fire place, and built in features should be taken and indicated correctly on floor plan. Electric outlets should be located also.

Small cut out patterns of colored paper should make to represent every piece of furniture. They should be in correct scale, the actual measurement of the floor area covered by each piece of furniture being transposed so that 1 foot becomes 1/4^th inch.

Trends: the arrangement of chairs may depend on the view, good light for reading, television viewing, or the need for a conversion grouping. The trends in house design today have given partitions in stead of walls to define interior spaces- a dining or living room, work areas, and play areas, and play areas. The same room used for  a living room and a dining room might have drop leaf extension table, or a large dining  area may be formed by placing a table at right angles to a wall.

Furniture arrangement in different rooms

Functional considerations are even more important than aesthetic considerations when furniture is being arranged. The first requisite for all rooms is comfort, but additional needs must also be met, for example, living room arrangement must not handicap sociability. The special requirements of various rooms are considered here.

Before you arrange a room:

• Remember traffic flow; most traffic areas require two feet of space.
• Arrange furniture first before hanging picture or mirrors.
• Arrange major pieces of furniture first, then smaller items such as end tables, chairs and plant stands.
• Leave enough room for doors and drawers to be opened.
• Think about lighting and how light will work in the room; lights are easy to move, however, this should be done before hanging mirrors and pictures.
• If placing a TV in a room, remember the distance required between the screen and the viewer; for instance, most sofas or beds should be at least eight feet away from a standard television screen.

LIVING ROOM;

The living room should be the kind of room that its name indicates, for every member of the family should live in it.

It should express the express the spirit of home to the family, and of welcome to the friends of the family. The ideal living room should have gray curtains and flowers, a comfortable sofa, a radio, a table to work on, a desk, a rug that can be rolled back for dancing and a hearth with a fire on it whenever it is cold, comfortable chairs drawn up near it, and plenty of lamps, books and magazines close by. A place for each member of the family to follow his is her occupation with a well-lighted, comfortable chair for each is a necessity in the home of average size.

Furnishings should be arranged so that the living room has a center of interest. This feature should be emphasized so that, upon entering the room. A picture window, which is the center of interest during the day, loses its importance at night.

The major conversation group of furniture is the most important furnishing in the living room. It should be so well placed and so comfortable that is the conductive to conversation. This group should seat about eight persons, without the necessity of dragging up chairs. In modern or ranch houses part of this seating furniture may be built in and finished with foam cushions. In modern living room a conversation corner is often arranged with an I-shaped sofa, with built-in seats, or with sectional seating units that turn a corner satisfactorily, accommodating several persons on each side of the corner.

A reading or study group consisting of a table and a chair or two as a convenience in a living room. Good lighting for day and night is essential, and so this group should be located near a window.

A special writing group needs a large desk and a chair that is comfortable for writing. It should have a good lamp and be near a window and book shelves. Reading and writing groups should be as far away from the conversation group as possible.

A music enjoyment group may consist merely of a radio, flanked by two easy chairs, and a low stool. A radio, phonograph, and records are often placed a sofa. The person who likes to lie on a sofa and listen to the radio should have a low end table radio that can be reached comfortably.

A tall and important article like a bookcase, secretary, or cabinet is sometimes needed across the room to this balance the fireplace or the center of interest. Several specially designed stackable units, such as a television cabinet, record player, picture projector, and book shelves may be combined to save space and give height.

A reasonable amount of change keeps the atmosphere of the home interesting and alive. Unusual arrangement should be tried, such as placing the end of a table or a flat desk against a wall.

For your living room to be comfortable, make sure you don’t your space. Too much furniture crammed into too little space or sparse furnishings in a room that is too large can make for a very unattractive space. Your need to provide enough space for an efficient flow of traffic, and let your space breathe visually. This creates a sense of well being and relaxation.

Traffic lane: 3’ or more

Foot room between sofa or chair and edge of coffee table: 1’.6”

Floor space in front of chair or sofa for feet and legs:1’.6” to 2’.6”

DINING AREAS:

Dining room arrangements of furniture are likely to be rather obvious since it is usually most convenient to place the table in the middle of the room. If space allows, however, other positions may prove more entertaining. In some rooms the table can be placed against the windows with the diners facing the garden, which can be lighted to make it attractive at night.

Although plenty of wall space is more important than wall furniture in a small dining room, it is sometimes well to put one tall interesting piece of furniture across the room from the windows for balance and also to create a center of interest.

A serving table near the door into the kitchen is a convenience, if drawer space is needed, a chest of drawers may be substituted. Two identical serving tables designed for use also an extension sections of the dining table are practical.

Where the dining room serves two or three purposes, being also a study, sitting room, music room, or a sewing room, it should be furnished as an extension of the living room. Comfortable furniture should be arranged in groups. A center of interest could be established with a secretary, not a buffet or sideboard. If the living room adjoins the dining room the floors of both rooms should be treated exactly alike to unify the rooms.

Breakfast rooms are usually very convenient for eating as well as for several other purposes. A mother of small children finds that this sunny room is the ideal place for baby’s play pen while she is doing her kitchen work.

A small family need not be confined to any particular spot for meals but can eat before the fireplace, beside a sunny window, on the porch, or whatever it is most interesting or convenient.

To enjoy your dining room to the fullest, make sure you leave enough space around the table so that people can get in and out of their chairs comfortably, and the person who is serving can move around the table without trouble.

Space for occupied chairs from edge of table to back of chair.1’6” to 1’.10”

Space to get into chairs: 2’.6” to 3’

Traffic path around table and occupied chairs for serving: 1’.6” to 2’

BEDROOMS:

The location of doors and windows usually restricts bedroom furniture arrangement. The furniture should be arranged for convenience first of all, however, if feasible, a center of interest should be created and the furniture grouped attractively.

A very flexible arrangement is necessary for comfort in a bedroom, as the furniture should be readily movable to suit changing room, as the furniture should be readily movable for comfort in a bedroom, as the furniture should be readily movable to suit changing conditions. For example, a person confined to bed by illness should not have to face a window. Builder’s provisions notwithstanding, the heads of beds should be located against a wall with windows.

Good ventilation usually requires a different location of beds in summer from that in winter. Fresh air without a draft over the bed is always desirable.

The use of arrangement of one or two beds is to extend then into middle of the room the center of a wall. Whereas this is sometimes necessary, it is often possible to place the beds parallel to the wall in corners, leaving the middle of the room free. Two couches or holly wood beds look well meeting in one corner.

A chaise langue should not be put in a small bedroom. In a large room it is best placed near the windows. A slightly diagonal position is more pleasing than an extreme diagonal, but a position parallel to the wall promotes architectural unity.

A well-lighted place near or in front of a window is the location for dressing table. In a combination sitting-bedroom a desk can be placed under a mirror and used as a dressing table, with all the equipment concealed in its drawers.

The remaining furniture is located for convenience. A bench or a chest for blankets at the foot of the bed is useful. An easy chair with the reading lamp, end table, and sewing stand belongs near a window. A straight chair is convenient beside a desk or table. An end table beside the head of the chaise lounge should be the height of its arm. A beside table should be large with a drawer that can be opened by a person in bed.

Two identical chests of drawers sometimes look well side by side, particularly if they are low, in modern interiors drawer space is usually provided in closets and dressing rooms, however, so that chests are not needed in bedrooms.

In a bedroom, place furniture so that you don’t stub your toes should you need to get up in the middle of the night. You should also be able to move around comfortably to make the bed and be able to open any drawers without trouble.

Space for making bed: 1’6”

Space between twin beds: 1’.6” to 2’.6”

Space in front of chest of drawers: 3’

Getting into or out of bed: 2’.6”

FURNITURE PLACEMENT GUIDELINES;

Between the sofa and side chairs, designers normally allow 48 to 100 inches. But you should adjust the space according to your family’s needs. With the chairs closer or if you are better able to hear conversations, then move them closer.

If your are using a coffee table in front of the sofa, the normal placement is 14 to 18 inches from the sofa. But again, if you have short arms or long legs, adjust the table until you are comfortable.

For television watching, the normal guideline is to place the television at 3 times the size of the screen. But with some of these new big screen TVs, 3 times the size of the screen is in the next room.

Three feet of space is recommended for traffic lanes. But if you have large family members or lots of kinds, I would recommend allow an extra foot for safety for your furniture and for your family members.

In the dining room, a average adult needs a depth of 20 inches for a dining room chair, plus 16 inches to soot back the chair back from the table. Again, adjust the measurement to fit your family.

At the dining table, you should allow 24 inches per person or more. If your family tends to gesture as they eat, as mine does, allow another 6 inches.

In order to serve your guest, allow 46 inches between the wall and the dining table.

For ideal bed placement, allow at least 24 inches between the bed and the wall to get out of bed comfortably and allow 36 inches between the end of the bed and the wall to get out of bed comfortably and allow 36 inches between the end of the bed and the bedroom or bathroom door.

Tips for creating balanced room:

• Balance heavy furniture pieces with other large objects or groupings of smaller items.
• Don’t place all furniture against walls; use the middle of the space to create depth and interest and to create functional areas, such as conversation spaces or work spaces.
• Look at the height of furniture pieces and try to create multi levels within the space. If you have shorter piece and need to add height, hang a larger print on the wall above, elongating the space and allowing the eye to travel up; this will make the room feel taller.
• Use color and patterns to your advantage. Eye popping colors can make a room come alive; just remember to not overuse one particular color or pattern and to spread each throughout the space. Throw pillows, curtains, picture frames and decorative art can all add punches of color and distinctive patterns into a neutral base.
• Just as you added color to a room, a variety of textures also add depth and interest. Pillows, rugs, drapes, and throws; mixing materials will also create interest; marble, wood, and metal can provide grounding to a space while glass, breezy fabrics and wicker create a breezy feel to the room.
• If you’re using armchairs, remember to add 2” to the measurements. 

Some tips in creating comfortable, balanced furniture arrangements are as follows.

1. Select a centre of interest/focal point and arrange the furniture accordingly, subordinating all other minor pieces around to group them together.
2. When planning/redesigning of a room, try to break old habits and do something new.
3. Furniture from elsewhere in the house may work well in another room. Equally, items that have traditionally been in a room don’t necessarily need to stay there.
4. Scan your home for furniture swaps. Make a list of the items you want or ‘need in each room.
5. Use the room/floor plan technique and use furniture templates to see how different furniture groupings might look on paper before moving heavy items.
6. Experimenting with furniture layout will help to create an interesting yet practical room. Plan and group focal points like sofa set, coffee table, news paper holder, magazine rack all as one unit. Don’t put a TV and bookshelf directly beside a home theater or a fireplace as it would look crowded. Instead television to be arranged at a distance from seating arrangements. Home theatre may be arranged in another family room. Bookshelves, accessories along with indoor plants can be grouped together with a good lighting arrangement.
7. Think of the living space as a “city” with major roads, side streets and alleys. Translate this concept to the room’s traffic flow/ circulation. Reserve three feet for the main pathway, two feet for pathways to a window or fireplace, and allow 18 inches for the “alleys,” like the space between a coffee table and sofa or as a leg room
8. Traffic – consider the most-frequently used items in a room and the ease of access to them. The TV, sofa, door and fireplace can create similar traffic paths in a living room.
9. Arrange furniture in angles and on carpets to create depth and also for creativity in arrangements.
10. Convenience – a room must ultimately be adequate for the function it performs in the house and be comfortable for its residents. It may be the ultimate style statement, but if you can’t see the TV properly or eat comfortably, all efforts in arrangement of furniture will be a waste.
11. It seems odd to consider that inanimate objects can create a welcome, but it’s true. If the view from a door way is predominantly of the backs of chairs a visitor won’t be tempted in. Similarly, rows of furniture pushed against the walls seem uninviting, while angled groups look cozy.
12. The entry/ hall ways, living/ drawing rooms can leave an everlasting, pleasant welcome and memorable, if arranged well with the suitable furniture and indoor plants as accessories. The taste of the inmates if well expressed would make living comfortable for everybody and inspire.

References:

1. G:\Furniture\Furniture Care – Furniture Care Tips_com.htm
2. G:\Furniture\Care and Maintenance of Outdoor Furniture Covers.htm
3. G:\Furniture\History of Indian Furniture  Laxmi International Export.htm
4. http://interiordec.about.com/od/decoratingroombyroom/a/ArrangeLivingRoomFurniture.htm?nl=1
5. http://www.furnishingsguide.com/glossary.htm#top
6. Terence Concern’s New House book “The complete Guide to Home Design: 2002 edition.
7. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
8. Premavathy Seetharaman and Parveen Pannu(2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
9. Reader Digest-Complete Book of Home Decorating (inspiring ideas and practical techniques to bransform home) 2001 published by Reader’s Digest.
10. http://interiordec.about.com/od/decoratingroombyroom/a/ArrangeLivingRoomFurniture.htm?nl=1
11. G:\space furniture\Living Room Furniture  Living Room Furniture Styles & Designs  Living Room Furniture Ideas.htm
12. Anna Hong Rutt,1969, Home Furnishing Second Edition, Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.
13. Goldstein Harriet and Goldstein Vetta, 1954, Art in Everyday Life, Fourth Edition, Macmillan Publishing, Co,Inc.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures of residential and commercial interiors and identify the furniture arrangement.
2. Measure the spaces between the furniture and compare with the standards.

WALLS – CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND MATERIALS USED

INTRODUCTION

A wall is a structural component that envelopes a building. It determines the direction of movements inside the building and its ambience.  The over-all function of a wall, in conjunction with floors and roofs, provides a barrier between indoor and outdoor environments. It supports doors, windows, ventilators, staircase and fireplace and ensures boundaries, background, connectivity, circulation, privacy, safety and also contributes to exterior and interior aesthetics.

Primary function of wall is to enclose or divide space of building to make it useful, provides privacy, security and give protection against heat, cold and rain.

WALLS – CLASSIFICATION

Based on the structural strength and distribution of load, they are basically classified into Load Bearing Wall and Non Load Bearing Wall

• Load Bearing Wall: This is the structural wall called external wall of the building that carry the load from above (own weight & load from roof) and transfer it to the foundation. These are designed to carry super-imposed loads.

— Depending on the type of building and the number of stories, load-bearing walls are gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry the weight above it.

— Outer wall could become unstable if the load exceeds the strength of the material used, potentially leading to the collapse of the structure.

— A load bearing wall is opposed to a curtain wall, which uses the strength of a sub-wall to bear the weight of the curtain such as the brick facade on a skyscraper, and superstructure, usually a steel frame, to carry the weight of the floors and walls inside the curtain walls protection.

–The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are usually stone, brick, concrete or concrete block.

• Non Load Bearing Wall: It is known as an interior wall.
  • A nonstructural wall doesn’t carry other load than its own load. Ex: Thin transparent or translucent walls of glass or plastic.
  • Internal walls integrate with ceilings and thus govern the room shape, size and character. These determine the space relationship within the house
  • A partition wall is a wall for the purpose of separating rooms, or dividing a room.
  • Storage walls that unit the enclosing functions of walls with many kinds of storage space.
  • Walls less than ceiling height gives visual privacy
  • Interior room dividers divide large space into separate distinct areas.
  • Movable partitions walls are used in interiors that open to form one large floor area could be sliding or folding screen.

TYPES OF BUILDING WALLS Varieties of walls are built in and around the buildings for different purpose. These include –

Boundary walls: Boundary walls are thick walls and they are meant basically for protection and for barrier. Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and city walls. These intergrades into fences; the conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal thickness and often is open in nature, while a wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and is completely closed, or opaque

Retaining walls:  This is a special type of wall, that may be either external to a building or part of a building that serves to provide a barrier to the movement of earth, stone or water. The ground surface or water on one side of a retaining wall will be noticeably higher than on the other side.

Curtain Wall: Curtain walls are external walls, typically designed with extruded aluminum members, and in-filled with glass. This provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as day lighting. However, parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort and visual comfort are more difficult to control.

Window walls: This is a favorite feature in modern architecture. Window walls span the slab heights and install between the slabs whereas curtain walls install in front of the slab. An entire wall of glass may be sectioned in various ways so that some panels are fixed and others act as a window or door.  A window wall is particularly desirable where the indoor and outdoor relationship is important.

Shared walls: This type of wall separates an apartment or house from one other. There are special laws that govern shared walls that safeguards the property rights. Typically, a neighbour cannot alter the common wall if it is likely to affect the building or property on the other side.

Other Functional walls: Portable walls, such as room dividers or portable partitions, are used to take a large open space and effectively divide it into smaller rooms. Portable walls can be static such as cubicle walls, or they can be wall panels mounted on casters to provide an easy way to reconfigure assembly space. They are often found inside schools, churches, convention centers, hotels, and corporate facilities. Storage walls unite the enclosing functions of walls with many kinds of storage space and spur or free standing walls that stop short of joining the adjacent walls at one or both ends.

FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WALLS

• Use

They are primarily protective screens separating the house as a whole from its surroundings and partitioning the interiors into usable areas. They insulate the interiors against heat, cold & noise; they reflect or absorb light & sound; and they house the wires, pipes and ducts for electrical appliances, plumbing and heating. Increasingly they are used as a built – in – storage and as background for interior furnishings and lighting.  In addition, the walls accommodate conduits for types of electrical wiring or plumbing. Electrical outlets for interior and exterior are usually mounted on these walls.

• Economy

Good walls should have economical to erect, long lasting, require minimum maintenance, keep heating and cooling bills low, and takes little space. All the five characteristics from one wall may not be possible and hence one should decide what is most important for each wall, because even in one house their functions are not identical. When walls are not necessary for actual enclosure they are replaced by various types of dividers to separate areas without sacrificing a feeling of spaciousness. Collapsible walls, glass walls, panels, screens, open shelves & cabinets, grill work are frequently used in place of actual walls. Sliding wall panels and folding walls are used to make rooms more adaptable to a variety of purposes. Storage walls of various types conserve floor space.

• Aesthetics

Building walls frequently become work of an art externally and internally, such as when featuring mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design focus when they exhibit textures or painted finishes for effect. In architecture and civil engineering, the term curtain wall refers to the facade of a building which is not load-bearing but functions as decoration, finish, front, face, or history preservation. Exterior walls shape the mass of the house and establish its relationship to its environments.

• Environmental Control

The exterior environment that the wall is subjected to includes environmental control loadings such as thermal, moisture.  The performance of the wall system depends on its ability to control, regulate and/or moderate these environmental control loadings on each side of the wall to desired levels.

MATERIALS FOR INTERIOR WALLS : A variety of material are used to finish interior wall.

Stone: It has so many desirable qualities that it would undoubtedly be used more widely if it was not costly. It promises permanence.

• Granite produces a feeling of stability and permanence is desired.
• Granite for walls is usually polished or honed as abrasion is not a problem with walls.
• Marble takes a beautiful polish and comes in variety of colors.
• It is found to be ideal for fireplaces and bathroom walls.
• Sandstone is a natural concrete of sand grains, looks and feel very sandy.
• Slate stone splits easily into thin sheets and makes good indoor paving.
• Limestone is pale cream, off-white or beige in colour, are used interiors of kitchen, bath and wash areas.

Brick and tile (Clay):

• Brick and tile (Clay): An Indian standard size is 3” x4”x9” . Although red brick is commonly seen, colors range from almost white, pale yellow, pink, purples and grays. On the basis of texture as well as resistance to breakage, moisture, fire bricks are conventionally divided into several types:  Common or sand struck brick is made in mold coated with dry sand, have slightly rounded edges and are used for exposed side walls.  Face bricks has sharp edges and corners, more uniform in color and texture and resistant to weather than are common bricks.  Paving bricks are those made harder by firing at higher temperatures to withstand abrasion and to lessen absorption of moisture.  Fire bricks are usually yellow, and suitable for places that are subjected to great heat, such as fireplaces.
• Concrete: Concrete is a mixture of sand, coarse aggregate, Portland cement, and water.  The sand used in concrete should be blank-run sand, which is fairly rounded in shape and of various sizes. The coarse aggregate is gravel or crushed stone.  Portland cement is made of clay, lime, and other ingredients that have been heated in a kiln and ground into a fine powder.
• Wood: Natural Wood has many advantages when used in construction: All the wood is same as the surface. These can be turned and carved. Surface of solid wood can be planed or thoroughly sanded incase of damage for refinishing.  Surface doesn’t loosen or peel off. Major Disadvantages are high cost and tendency to warp, shrink or swell.
• Man-Engineered wood, also called composite wood, man-made wood, or manufactured board. It includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding together the strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of wood, together with adhesives, to form composite materials.  Typically, engineered wood products are made from the same hardwoods and softwoods used to manufacture lumber.  Whole logs are usually used for veneers, such as plywood.
• Plywood is a manufactured panel made up of three or more thin plies or layers of wood glued together with the grain of adjacent sheets at right angles to one another. Each ply is laid down with its grain running perpendicular to the one before it. It is widely used in house construction for walls, ceilings and subfloors.
• Veneer is thin surface layer, as of finely grained wood, glued to a base of inferior material. Veneers are glued to the top of thick lumber to make veneered wood, glued to paper for wall coverings or glued to other veneers as in plywood and laminates.
• Laminated wood is usually built by the parallel gluing of lumber boards in a variety of sizes and shapes according to intended use. It can be used to fabricate large members that are impossible to make from solid wood. The individual boards used in laminated wood, because of their relative thinness, can be properly dried without checking (cracking), and defects, such as knots, can be removed.
• Particle board is another wood based boards, which is manufactured of particles of wood glued together. They are classified as (Low- and high-density boards are rare) – low-density (used for insulation), Medium-density, and High-density.
• GLASS: Glass is a chemically inert, brittle, hard and transparent construction material. Foamed or cellular glass is used for vapour proof insulation and in spun form glass fibers are used as acoustic and thermal insulation. There are different types and colors of glass, these include: Transparent glass, of different thickness and properties and Translucent glass, which allows light but limited vision
• Glass brick also known as glass block is an architectural element made from glass. It is used in areas where privacy or visual obscuration is desired while admitting natural or artificial light. Thermal transmission, noise, dust etc may also be controlled. The use of glass blocks, which was limited to front doors and bathrooms, is now increasing due to modern technology and innovativeness to add decorative effect. But the use of glass blocks is only for non load bearing walls.
• MIRRORS : Usually made from float glass 4-6mm thick, and coated with silver, gold or chrome on one side. Mirror tile and sheets have a variety of different sizes and shapes of mirrors on them and also come in different colors. Mirrors are available for use without a surrounding frame, these usually are made from a type of safety glass. Using mirror in interiors is a way to reflect light, visually enlarge the space, and fill a space that needs interest.
• Terrazo: Terrazzo is a manmade composite material poured in place or precast as panels, which is used for wall treatments. It consists of marble, quartz, granite, glass or other suitable chips, sprinkled or unsprinkled, and poured with a binder that is cementitious, chemical or a combination of both. Terrazzo is cured, ground and polished to a smooth surface or otherwise finished to produce a uniformly textured surface.
• Gypsum board: Drywall is the term used for constructing interior walls and ceilings using panels made of gypsum plaster pressed between two thick sheets of paper, then kiln dried. Drywall construction is used globally for the finish construction of interior walls and ceilings. For damp rooms such as kitchens and baths, a there is a waterproof drywall designed to prevent moisture damage to the walls. These are available in different thickness for different applications. The sheets, which are relatively inexpensive, are 4 feet wide, 1/4 to 5/8 inch thick, and from 6 to 16 feet long. The standard size is 1/2 inch thick and 8 feet long.

NATURAL MATERIALS  :

• Other man- engineered cellulosic products from other lignin-containing materials such as rye straw, wheat straw, rice straw, or sugar cane residue are eco-boards, which contain no actual wood but vegetable fibers.
• Cork board – Extremely lightweight and sustainably harvested from a renewable source, cork is a great material for interior wall surfacing. It is available in sympathetic natural colour and texture and in differing thicknesses, and suitable for any room. It is durable, easy to maintain, sound absorbent; good insulator, no further finishes needed, but can be waxed. But it is harmed by moisture and swells, takes stains, thus needs plastic-impregnated special treatment to improve its quality if used in baths and kitchen.
• Jute-phenolic composite board: A tough and highly durable board produced by combining jute fibres with a phenol based resin binder. Bio-composites such as this provide alternative ways of producing durable, high performance materials.
• Rye Grass Straw Board: A lightweight, biodegradable building board made from agricultural rye grass straw waste. Rye grass has high cellulose content and is therefore unsuitable for winter livestock fodder. The high cellulose levels do however make it perfect for heat bonding into board.
• SHEET METAL: Metal is a lightweight and durable material which has been used in decorative applications for centuries. Today, the choices of metallic raw materials include: steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper and brass. Metal has been successfully used in the commercial interiors of restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and health clubs for a long time. Stainless steel was all the rage in classic art deco interiors and architecture .
• TILES: When considering tile, there is usually a choice between ceramic, plastic and stone. Ceramic tile, narrow the choice down to either original ceramic or porcelain, depending on preference. However, there is another type of ceramic tile available, commonly called vitrified or glass tile. These tiles are similar to traditional ceramic versions, but are much less porous and are suitable for a wider range of projects.
• Glass Tiles: A wide range of tiles in a range of colours and sizes, made from 100% recycled glass cullet. The glass recyclate is ground to a fine frit and then exposed to a combination of heat and pressure to create these opaque, textured pieces. Glass tiles are frost proof, resistant to fading, discoloration, and chemical damage, and are impervious to water and stains. These properties make them suitable for home use, including backsplashes, swimming pools and spas, and various outdoor applications.
• Ceramic wall tiles usually have water absorption of around 15% and glazed to make them impervious. The tile body is not designed to bare weight and the glazed surface is not usually very resistant to abrasion.
• Vitrified tiles are unglazed tiles: Their polish is achieved by very hard materials and they are very strong and durable, whereas porcelano tiles are glazed tiles and their durability is as good as the durability of the glaze applied over them. Vitrified tiles posses much better mechanical strength (MOR), scratch resistance, resistance to acids, alkalis and chemicals, resistance to staining etc compared to marble or natural granite
• PLASTIC: These wall panels have a smooth surface and are 100% waterproof and do not accumulate dirt or rot easily and are easy to maintain. They come in attractive matte texture and color goes all the way through the product for extended product life. Plastic wall panels such as those made from PVC do not attract insects and does not get affected by acids, harsh chemical solvents or petroleum products. These high-performance sanitary sheets blend well with most interior décors.

References

1.www.build.com

2.www.alibaba.com

3.P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi. 

Assignment

1. Identify the types of walls constructed in 5 residential and 5 commercial buildings.
2. Collect pictures to materials used for the construction of walls.

TYPES OF WALL TREATMENTS

INTRODUCTION

The basic functions of wall treatments are to make the building look good.  Wall treatments have a role to control detrimental effects in an environment. In busy traffic areas and in wet areas like washroom and urinals, it is a necessity to look for wall coverings that are easy to clean and resist dirt and in busy corridors, passage, staircase area it could resist stains, fingerprints and scuffmarks.

Wall coverings/treatments/finishes are selected according to:

• Function
• Size
• Orientation to a natural light source
• Existing furnishings
• Budget
• Maintenance

TYPES OF WALL TREATMENTS

Wall treatments are external application of new materials or finishes to masonry wall or dry wall to produce modified effect for enhanced beauty, protection and control from radiation. These include different finishes, covering, paneling, and cladding.

Wall finishes: These are sealants like plasters and paints that cover exterior and interior walls to enhance appearance or camouflage the structural defects and protect surface from moisture. Most popular. Paints are

• Least expensive wall covering
• Offers color, texture and variety
• Provides visual excitement
• Bright = attention
• Dark = close/advance
• Light = open/expand

Wall Coverings: These are surface coverings specific to interiors to produce plain or textured effect with wood laminates, self adhesive films, wallpaper, fiber wall, fabric, cork, ceramic tile, mirror and wood paneling. These vary in cost, suitability, maintenance, durability, degree of light absorption or reflection, and degree of heat-cold insulation. Features of wall coverings are

• Tremendous variety to choose from
• Low to high cost, mostly modest
• Imitates natural materials
• Covers blemished walls
• Coordinates/Allows creativity
• Instant décor
• Can be washed depending on type of paper.

Significance of interior wall covering

Effective interior decoration is an essential component of the creation of a comfortable and pleasant space for living. This can be done with a number of different materials such as stone, fabrics, paper, wood and techniques including wall cladding, wallpaper, and wood paneling, among other things.

Wall coverings are available in the combinations of colour, pattern, texture and finish that create unique and inspiring aesthetic effects.  Apart from providing aesthetic benefits, they also have a number of performance benefits.

• Heavy-duty coverings with vinyl and woven fabric backing material can take more wear and tear than ordinary wallpaper. Wall covering protects the wall better than paint.
• Conceal uneven walls or surfaces in poor condition.Emboss or print combinations in coverings are exceptionally good at hiding cracks or other damage that may lay beneath them.
• Fire resistance.  Wall coverings that are tested to the highest fire safety standards can minimize damages during fire accidents.
•  Some of the materials can be washed and in many cases scrubbed repeatedly to remove any accidental marks without damaging the product itself.
• Bio-Pruf coating.Materials treated with anti-bacterial coating can inhibits the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms, making it especially suitable for use in hospitals, where it can reduce the risk of cross-infection.
• Stain resistance. Wall covering that are treated for stain resistance compounds forms a film,  that enables the wall covering to withstand staining.
• Quicker to apply.Wall coverings are easy and quick to fix. Hence it can be immediately put to use. No waiting for several coats of paint to dry and odour to disperse.
• Cost effective.Right choice of wall covering can be a cost effective solution, taking into account maintenance costs and the longer lifespan.

FIBERBOARDS (MDF AND HDF)

It’s a type of engineered wood product that is made out of wood fibers. It is sometimes used as a synonym for particle board, but particle board usually refers to low density fiber board.

Medium density (MDF) and high density (HDF) fiberboards, hard board are commonly used for furniture making, but also for wall covering. They have resistance to scratches and abrasions as well as temperature variations and humidity. They can be installed on any type of wall and in every room. They transform walls in a very simple, fast and economical fashion. Heavy duty panels are easy to handle.

NATURAL FIBER WALL COVERING

So there are three good reasons for using natural materials on a wall.

• To provide an authentic feeling of an old cottage or farmhouse, or
• To express a casual, earthy, warm mood. Plus,
• Natural materials such as tile are best for wet areas to exclude water penetration getting into the walls and floors and creating damage.

Grass cloth brings a natural serene effect to your room bringing bit of nature indoors. It absorbs noise and adds texture. Heavier wall coverings such as grass cloth, fibers and fabrics will cover any slight imperfections on walls. Grass cloth and natural fiber wall coverings are environmental friendly.

Leather, fiberglass, paper, wood- cork, bamboo are available in rolls or tiles that can be glued to the wall.

FIBER GLASS WALL COVERING

Fiberglass is a material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. Woven with high quality textures fiber glass yarn and special coating is applied for fire proofing, environmental protection, air ventilation and shock resistance.

THERMOSPLASTIC PANELS WITH METALLIC EFFECT

Thermoplastic panels offer a wide range of patterns and colors. Often used to cover walls and ceilings, back splashes and humid spaces such as near bath tubs and behind faucets.

The benefits are many-resistance to chemical products, stain impacts, they clean easily with warm soapy water and are easy to install. Plastic wall tile panels have an insulating backing and can reduce heat loss. These ceramic or metallic style panels are designed for humid areas like bathrooms. 

LEATHER PANEL Leather panels can be installed on almost any smooth surface , including plaster walls, sheet walls ply wood and concrete.

STONE/BRICK IMITATION PANELS-

Made of polyurethane, these panels are melded from real stones and imitate in a very realistic pattern, each detail and texture of stone. They are sold in boxes of four panels of 12×12 inches in shades of grey, beige or sand. They need no maintenance and provide insulation which reduces energy cost. 

MIRROR WALLS

A floor to ceiling mirror wall enlarges the room, transforming it into a spacious living area. Mirror walls are available in clear mirror or tinted bronze or grey. 

FABRIC WALL COVERINGS

Fabrics can be stapled to the wall in horizontal or vertical precut panels. The fabric panels should be overlapped on the edges in order to hide the corners and staples.

WALL PAPER

Wallpaper is a kind of material used to cover and decorate the interior walls of homes, offices, and other buildings. It is usually sold in rolls and is put onto a wall using wallpaper paste. Wallpapers can come plain, textured or with patterned graphics. It adds warmth, character and beauty and can be used to create an astonishing variety of effects. 

Different Kinds of Wallpapers for a Variety of Effects 

Paper backed wallpapers are the most common. Traditionally, the design was printed directly on the substrate, and the paper was hung as-is.

With vinyl coated wallpaper, the design is printed on the paper and then sealed with acrylic. This allows greater resistance to dirt, oil, and moisture. Vinyl coated wallpaper works well in kitchens and bathrooms.

Solid sheet vinyl wallpaper, also known as paper backed vinyl, is made by laminating a solid sheet of decorative vinyl to the paper backing. A variation of this is called “in-register” paper backed vinyl. An embossed (raised) design echoes the printed pattern. These types of wallpaper are very resistant to moisture, but will not hold up to hard scrubbing. They also can be hard to remove, because they’re not very porous.

Fabric backed wallpapers Fabric is another common backing material. Woven fabric backings are very durable, and they are typically used in commercial applications. Scrim and drill cloth are the most commonly used woven backings. Scrim is the most lightweight, while drill cloth is progressively sturdier. 

Ingrain or Woodchip Wallpaper

These pressed woodchips are very inexpensive and give your wall a degree of grain texture. Woodchip paper is a good way to disguise walls with smaller blemishes.

Vinyl Wall coverings: The most common and best known types of wallpaper are printed wallpaper and vinyl wall coverings. They’re easy to apply and easy to remove.

Embossed or Relief Wall coverings

This type of wallpaper is designed to give texture to your walls, or ceiling.

Foil Wallpaper: 

This paper has a metallic backing.

Advantages of using wallpaper in interiors. These are available in hundreds of patterns, colours, and design. It is possible to make a surface to look like wood, bricks, metal or straw simply with wallpaper.  Some homeowners choose to put wallpaper on half of their walls with a border at the chair-rail length, thus giving them another way to decorate with wallpaper. Most of today’s wallpapers are coated so that they wipe clean from common household marks. Besides being easy to clean, the patterns on the paper will help hide dirt and smudges. Finally, wallpaper can hide blemishes in the wall’s plaster far better than a coat of paint.

Disadvantages of using wallpaper. Wallpapers get easily stained and stain proof wall papers are costlier.  It is also easily soiled and damaged.

Wall paneling is a surface covering done with pieces of flat wooden pieces cut into a rectangular shape, laid along the wall that serves as the visible and exposed covering for a wall. Wall panels are functional as well as decorative, providing insulation and soundproofing, combined with uniformity of appearance, durability or ease of replaceability. It is

• Warm and attractive appearance
• Requires little maintenance
• Different forms and price ranges

As a decor element, wall panels are an excellent way to break up wall space. This can be achieved by paneling the upper or lower half of the wall, installing wainscoting, creating a faux finish, or one of several other methods. Panels served to insulate the room from the cold stone.

• Wainscot is a paneling style applied to the lower part of the interior wall below the dado rail or chair rail and above the baseboard and skirting board. It is traditionally constructed from tongue and groove bards.
• Boiserie is used to define ornate and intricately carved wood paneling. Early examples were unpainted but later painted and gilded. The panels are confined not just to walls of the room but also used to decorate doors, frames, cupboards and shelves.

Benefits and Constraints of wood Paneling: There are many reasons that wood paneling is an excellent decorating option for the modern home.

• Wood paneling is an integral part of interior design as well as a traditional method of beautifying the walls
• By installing wood paneling on one or more walls or sections of the wall, one can add warmth and depth to the room.
• Use wood paneling as a backdrop for artwork and can add a touch of natural beauty to the room.
• Currently, there are many different finishes, grains, and textures which can enhance the look of wood paneling.
• Wood paneling can be used to create depth, richness, and add a customized look to a room. Another benefit to implementing wood paneling is the ease of installation.

The most typical constraints associated with wood panels are wood panels are not perfect for every type of interior, especially where wall becomes damp due to moisture seepage. In such cases the panels can bow and curve may be due to excess pressure on the frame. This can further give rise to water marks and discolorations on panels. In severe case, it could result in fungal infestations in the wood which can lead to timber rot damage.

    Decorative wall panels:

Decorative wall panels are prefabricated sheets of PVC or engineered wood which are fitted upon existing wall surface. The sheets come in standard sizes, hence the installation becomes pretty easy. Modular wall panels are often covered with textured materials, fabrics, paneling or wallpaper to make them more aesthetically pleasing. Wall panels are functional as well as decorative, providing insulation and soundproofing, combined with uniformity of appearance, along with some measure of durability or ease of replaceability. The panels can be used for either home interiors or for office interiors.

Wall cladding is a non-structural treatment that covers a portion or total wall of building exteriors and interiors for functional or decorative reasons. This can include a degree of water-proofing, a barrier against the wind, or other protections. Cladding can take a number of different forms, different materials, and is often used to create a decorative building facade. Some of the popular materials for cladding include various metals, stone, and composites. They are

• Costly
• Are permanent
• Require little/no upkeep
• Give natural texture
• Considered classic

The process of using materials on the walls and roof to enclose a house, providing protection against weather is known as cladding. There are various material used for wall cladding such as wood, stone, metal, PVC, and these may be plain and polished or covered with textured materials like fabrics, paneling and wall papers or painted

Wood cladding is a very common type of cladding. This material is made up of wood planks derived from oak, pine and cedar trees. Wood cladding is naturally weather-resistant, environment-friendly and thermally insulating. This material is quite durable, but requires more maintenance than most other kinds of cladding.

Wall Cladding – Purpose and Technique

Vinyl Cladding: It is the most common exterior finish used on buildings. This material is made from rows of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin panels. It is a cheap cladding material that is easy to cut, install and replace as necessary. However, this material is said to release toxic fumes as it interacts with the air. These elements can potentially be harmful to humans, and may irritate respiratory illnesses like asthma.

Exterior Insulation and Finishing System (EIFS) is a type of building exterior wall cladding system that provides exterior walls with an insulated finished surface. EIFS is a system of plastic insulating panels covered by a synthetic stucco-like material.

Metal Cladding: For a modern, industrial type of décor Sheets of aluminum, copper, tin or stainless steel can be adhered to the wall. Metal cladding in general is fairly expensive, though it is resistant to rot, termites, and most kinds of damage.

Stone Veneer: Hard surface cladding is slips of real stone and brick which can be bonded and fixed to most surfaces. Real stone, sand stone, faux stone, veneer stone, Brick can be bonded and fixed to most surfaces, including timber frames and even metal lath.

Wall tiles

The most attractive wall coverings in current interior or home decor industry are the use of tiles. Natural stone tiles and slabs, engineered stone, ceramic tile, porcelain tile, mosaics of stone, glass tile, mosaic tile, metal tiles are used.

References

1.www.build.com

2.www.alibaba.com

3.P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures related to different types of wall treatments.
2. Collect information on care and maintenance of wooden paneling and wall paper.

MATERIALS AND FINISHES USED FOR EXTERIOR AND INTERIORS OF THE BUILDINGS  

Introduction

Wall finishes with paint have been recognized for their incredible anti-weathering quality, from the hot blistering sun of high summer to the biting, freezing cold, deep frosts of winter. Internal wall coating with paints and finishes are specially formulated to deal with a range of issues that contributes to aesthetics, durability and maintenance.  Environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, and humidity should be considered during application. External masonry paint coatings keep the walls dry and warm. Higher temperatures can affect application, especially the evenness of the paint films, as they will dry much more quickly. While colder temperatures can harm the film formation of practically all of the coatings. Plastered coatings like stucco and textured coats are used to hide a multitude of potential problems.

Plaster and Stucco are extensively used all over the world as a surface coating for exterior walls. These are further finished with weather resistant exterior acrylic finish, elastomeric coatings, exterior eco emulsion, super anti-fungal, waterproof cement paint, general purpose cement paint, exterior acrylic primer, 100% acrylic sealer, ant-carbonation bridge coating and cool roof coating. 

Plaster is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, and water that is applied in a thick, mud-like consistency to a base of wood or metal lath or perforated plasterboard. It is usually applied to lath, foundation of a plaster wall i.e., thin sheets of wood, sheets of expanded metal, or specially prepared gypsum boards. Its disadvantages are it does crack and often chips.

Stucco is a type of finishing plaster used on the exterior of the building. Stucco is a fine plaster made from Portland cement, sand and lime and applied wet in wall areas and it hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings. It is also used in interior decoration to produce intricate carving work that is durable, attractive and weather resistant.

Putty is white cement-based ready-mix putty which fills the pores of mortar / concrete walls and ceilings to provide a white, smooth, dry surface for painting. It has superior water resisting and adhesive properties, and can be applied on both exterior and interior surfaces. Being water resistant it doesn’t flake even if the walls are damp.

Textura finish is a ready-mix white cement-based textured plaster finish in powder form. Textura is available in a wide variety of surface textures, designs and colours. It decorates as well as protects interior and exterior walls.

Coolant is a white cement-based ready-mix coating material with dual properties. This reduces the indoor temperature and arrests minor cracks thereby arresting leakage.

Glass fibre Reinforced Concrete (GRC) is a lightweight plastering material that combines the moulding properties of cement with the tensile strength of glass fiber.  GRC can be used to produce pre-cast elements for wall cladding, columns, domes, arches etc.

Paints The wide range of interior wall finishes offered to provide a luxurious finish & a silky glowing appearance to the walls is paint. Available in luxury emulsion, acrylic emulsion, luster finish, pearl finish, acrylic distemper, rainbow distemper. Any paint is made up of three components: a pigment, a vehicle, and a solvent.

Pigment is the material that gives paint its color.  Pigments can be organic or chemical. A paint vehicle is material that bonds to pigment and remains on the surface once the paint dries.  The vehicle is what gives paint its protective properties.

A solvent is any liquid that dissolves the vehicle to make paint liquid in the bottle or can.  Water is a solvent if it dissolves the vehicle in a given paint.

Paints can be divided into three groups according to drying or curing mechanism-

• Physically drying paints.
• Oxidative drying paints.
• Chemically curing paints-drying.

KINDS OF PAINT 

Acrylic paint– is water based synthetic resin paint. Acrylic is extremely durable, odorless, easily applied, quick drying and washable.

Latex paint-is a type of acrylic and mostly used in interior finishes. It is water based paint, so cleanup is easy during application. Latex however shows brush marks. They are recommended for plaster, gypsum board, masonry, wood siding, and acoustical tile.

Alkyd paint– It has virtually replaced oil paint. It is resin enamel that is fast drying, resists yellowing, and cleans better than latex. They are recommended for moldings, woodworks, trim and anywhere moisture, fingerprints and scuff marks maybe a problem. They are probably the best choice for painting metal.

Enamel paint-It is a special type of paint similar to oil paint and is made with varnish or lacquer. Its finish is exceptionally hard and durable.

Epoxy paint– There are two types of epoxy paint. The first type is ready mixed in a single can. The second type is a two stage finish or catalyzed epoxy, which puts a tile like coating on almost any surface. They can be used on surfaces such as basement walls, shower stalls and swimming pools.

TYPES OF PAINTS: 

White wash, Dry distemper or water bound distemper, oil bound distemper, plastic or acrylic emulsion paint, textured wall finish, synthetic enamel paint, epoxy paints, flat oil paints.

Water-based or latex: easy to apply and dries quickly, does not adhere (stick) to some surfaces, such as bare wood

• Clean-up is easy with soap and water.
• Considered to be environmentally safe

Alkyd based: Solvent-based may be oil or synthetic resin called ALKYD

• Alkyd dries more quickly than oil based paints, does not contain lead
• Produces a durable and washable surface so good for walls and ceilings of kitchens, baths.
• Mineral spirits used for cleanup

Enamel: have the most gloss, have protective and decorative finish

• Used in kitchens, baths, wood trim, window sills, masonry

Another classification of paints

• Types
  • Oil-Based
    • Durable and washable
    • Chosen for walls and ceilings in bathrooms and kitchens
    • Can not clean up brushes with water
  • Latex
    • Easily applied
    • Water based, easy clean up
    • Often used for living, dining and bedrooms.
  • Finishes
    • Gloss, semi-gloss, satin and flat

Semi-gloss: have less gloss and are slightly less durable than enamels. Used in same places as enamels.

Satin or eggshell finish: have a slight sheen and used mostly on walls. Slightly less durable than semi-gloss.

Flat finish: no gloss and give a soft finish to walls and ceilings. Should not be used in kitchens/baths or window sills or woodwork. Usually the least expensive type of paint.

Most difficult to clean.

There are four categories of interior paint – Dry Distemper, Acrylic Distemper, Matt Emulsion and Silk Emulsion in ascending order of price and quality.

• Distempers
  Dry Distempers (which come in powder form) and Oil Bound / Synthetic Distempers are not washable. Acrylic Distempers, being partly based on acrylic resins, produce greater smoothness and wash ability.
• Emulsions

Known generally as “plastic” paints, these are based on a fine dispersion of resin in a solvent, which on drying, creates a remarkably tough, adherent, durable coating. They come in three categories:

• Silk Emulsions are premium acrylic emulsions, with silky smoothness and a luxurious silk-like finish. It enhances durability, and creates reflectance and smoothness.
• Regular Emulsions produce a smooth eggshell finish, in an equally wide choice of colours, and have almost the same durability as silk.
• Economy Emulsions offer the basic strengths of emulsion paint at economy prices.

• Enamel

Solvent based Enamel paints and oil paints are lustrous. They cannot be pre-mixed with water. The advantage with these paints is that they really last long and produce rich and desiring effects on the wall.

• Functional paints

Functional paints have specific functions like anti-condensation or mold and mildew resistant paints for eliminating insects, bacteria, fungus or dust mites. Functional paints have an in-built, safe and non-toxic mechanism to humans but fatal to insects, fungus, bacteria or dust mites. These types of paint are generally used in kitchens, baths, basements and any other area that may be damp.

Another specialty paint is heat resistant or fire-retardant house paint. While these paints cannot completely prevent fire, they do withstand much higher temperatures and slow the spread of fire.

Wood Paints: These are special substances applied to new surfaces as a base coat.

• Satin: It is a glossy ingredient penetrates wood pores and contains various colorants that can enhance natural color or give a different color to wood. A varnish is generally required over the stain to steal it.
• Varnish: It is made from natural resins from alcohol or a drying oil or a volatile thinner and dryers. A varnish is usually a transparent coating and is commonly used on wood to protect the surface and allow the natural grain to show through.
• Shellac: It’s a protective coating similar to varnish. It is made of a resinous substance called lac, which is deposited on trees in India and Asia. Its solvent is alcohol. Shellac dries more quickly than varnish but is less durable and is subject to water spots.
• Lacquer: It’s a superior quick drying varnish like finish made from resin from Asiatic sumac or from a synthetic nitro cellulous resin. 

PRIMERS

A primer is a preparatory coating put on materials before painting a plastered surface. Priming ensures better adhesion of paint to the surface, increases paint durability, and provides additional protection for the material being painted.

Metal primers in general are corrosion inhibiting base coats that adhere specifically to the metal surface.

TERMINOLOGIES IN PAINTS

 Acrylic:   A resin used in latex paint to bind other ingredients
Alkyd:    A resin often used in oil-based paints
Enamel:   A finishing material with very fine pigment, providing smooth, hard, semi-gloss or gloss finish
Gloss:   The degree of shininess of a paint finish.  The higher the gloss, the more durable and longer lasting the finish
Latex Paint:  A water based paint, sometimes called acrylic paint. Clean up is done with water
Eggshell paint is a low-luster paint, similar in sheen to the shell of an egg. It is generally used in areas where flat paint is undesirable, such as kitchens and bathrooms, ability to withstand cleaning and scrubbing.
Oil-base paint:  A paint made from oil, resins etc. Cleaning and thinning is done with  paint thinner
Polyurethane:  A  resin, Commonly  known as plastic coating material
Primer – A first coat, Usually a special paint – applied to help a finish coat adhere to the surface may be made from water-based or oil-based formula
Shellac:  A coating made from a resinous material called ‘lac’ and used as a clear sealer or finish
Thinner/solvents : A volatile liquid to regulate the consistency of oil-paint
Varnish: A liquid coating that converts to translucent or transparent solid film after application
Vinyl: The name of a resin, Vinyl acetate is commonly used in latex paint, polyvinyl chloride is used in solvent-thinned coating when chemical resistance  is necessary.

PAINTING TECHNIQUES

Glazing or Color washing is a technique to produce a soft and gently textured surface. It is created by brushing one or two thin successive washes of diluted paint over a smooth basecoat.

 Stenciling – Applying paint by using a cutout form to outline a design or lettering. Can be created or purchased.This interior painting involves applying color to a wall, floor, or ceiling through cutout areas of a template that creates a design. When the cutout template or stencil is removed, the pattern remains. The pattern can be of anything like including animals, stars, geometric patterns, flowers, the alphabet, etc.  The process is very easy and also can be used over and over again anywhere in the home.

Rubber Stamping – A customized print that can result out of the stamp design. These are fast and easy to work.

Dry brushing: In this technique, the brush is kept relatively dry as glaze is applied lightly over a base coat to create a cloudy effect. It is ideal for highlighting architectural mouldings.                                                                            

Texturing: There are many different ways to texture paints. The obvious advantage of texturing is that it is a wonderful disguise for imperfect wall.

Here is a list of the most popular faux painting techniques along difficulty levels:

Sponging – is probably the easiest and most versatile faux painting technique. It is easy to create simple textures and random patterns, or produce a look of stone, sandstone, and granite, even marble. Sponge is dipped into paint and dabbed onto wall to add pattern.

Ragging – is a faux painting technique for creating a textured look by using lint-free rags to add and remove paint from the wall. paint is applied by adding paint to pieces of rag and then applied to wall by rolling on.

Rag Rolling – is similar to “ragging”. In this technique, roll the rags such as cotton, burlap, cheesecloth, gauze, chamois, etc.,up like a newspaper and then roll it across the wet paint that has just been applied to the wall.

Bagging – involves placing a bunched-up cloth inside of a plastic bag. It is a handmade tool to make overlapping imprints on the glaze that has been applied to the wall.

Stippling – provides a more subtle effect than rag rolling or sponging, almost suede-like. The first step is to apply a base coat of paint to a smooth surface with a decorating brush. After the base coat dries, stippling brush can be used to apply a second top coat.

Dragging – is used to imitate the look of natural wood grain. First step is to apply a base coat of paint on the wall. Then using a dragging brush, start at the top of the wall and drag the brush in a straight line downwards. This technique can also be used on doors or furniture.

Combing – A coat of paint is applied with combs of various sizes. A squeegee with teeth cut into it may also be used. Combing can be in any pattern that is liked, including floor to ceiling, squiggly lines, or checkered.

Marbleizing   – is one of the most challenging of the faux painting techniques. Wall treatment created to resemble marble stone. Brushes, combs, sponges, and even feathers are used to create the rich look of marble.                     

Granite finish – is similar to marbleizing. Faux granite is a popular finish that can created to blend with the colors in the rooms.

Decorative Painting techniques

Faux painting – Faux (pronounced “foe”) is French for false. Faux paint is to paint one object to resemble another. With this interior painting, one can create the illusion of natural materials such as wood, marble, granite, etc. Faux finishes stimulate the look of other materials such as stone or wood by using various techniques to apply paints to a surface. Among the most popular finishes are marble, granite and wood grains. In addition to being used on walls, faux finishes are used on moldings, door, mantel pieces, and furniture.

Mural: A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other large permanent surface. Once completed, the mural can be given coats of varnish or protective acrylic glaze to protect the work from UV rays and surface damage.

Trompe l’oeil. The French term means to fool the eye. It is an art technique involving extremely realistic imagery in order to create the optical illusion that the depicted objects appear in three dimensions. It creates an illusion of textured surfaces as well as to give three dimensional appearances to flat walls and ceilings. Through the use of shading, artists are able to produce these desired three dimensional effects. An illusion created by paint to “fool the eye”. Usually a 3-D scene.

Gilding: A finish that is added to any surface that includes the addition of a precious metal., gold is most often used, but silver or less expensive metal can also be used. Two main gilding techniques are the use of composite foil (tin and gold), and the single gold foil.  

PROCEDURE FOR PAINTING THE EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR WALL SURFACE

Exterior Wall Surface:

• Decide what exterior area of house you want to paint.
• Determine what the surface of the area to paint. Different surfaces require different types of exterior paint. Therefore, the surface will give insight as to the type of exterior paint one should purchase to best cover that particular surface. Alkyd paints can be used for glossy surfaces. Latex paints can typically be used for other areas.
• Choose an exterior color or type of stain to use.
• Select the finish of exterior paint. Types of exterior finishes include flat, semi-gloss, gloss and clear finishes for wood grains. Choice depends on the area of painting. Latex finishes can be chosen for hardboard siding, vinyl or aluminum siding, brick, block, stucco and concrete and an alkyd finish for ferrous metal or galvanized metal. 

Interior Wall Surface:

The tips include –

• Explore varieties and be patient: It’s great to collect paint chips when planning a room, but hold off making final choices until overall room scheme is developed. Paint is available in literally an infinite array of colors and is the most versatile element of any room decor, the easiest to change, and the least expensive. Get ideas but make the final decision after rugs, wallpaper, and fabrics are finalized.
• Coordinate Decorating Samples: Before actual shopping, it is necessary to have collection of fabric, carpet, tile, wallpaper, and trim samples constantly.
• Really Study the Colors: You’ll find clues about the underlying tones of different shades of a color on a full sample strip of coordinated colors. Even if you’re not even considering using a darker tone, look at all the colors carefully. Decide if the family of colors is the direction you’re headed with your color selection.
• Choose the Paint Finish for the Job: Consider which paint finish might be best for the project. Matte or flat finishes hide wall imperfections, but glossier finishes will reflect more light.
• Plan painting schedule: Survey all the areas to be painted with the painter, evaluate and take stock of all the requirements.. The objective is to free enough space at a time to cycle surface preparation, priming, painting and intervening drying time. Painting during the rains and in very windy conditions is to be avoided and remember to keep rooms well ventilated at all stages of painting.
• A paint job is basically a 3-stage process, punctuated by drying time after each stage
• Surface Preparation – which is different for new and previously unpainted surfaces and previously painted surfaces
• Priming – this stage is mainly protective in nature and critical for the enduring performance of paint systems
• Paint Application – the final stage when the finishing coats are applied
• While choosing paints and budgeting, one should remember:
• Different surfaces require different kinds of paints which have been developed specifically for that surface.
• Painting involves a system comprising at least two components, a paint and a primer, and sometimes a third, a thinner. To get the desired results, you must use the recommended primer. With water-based paints, water is the thinning agent. For solvent-based paints, you need the recommended thinner.

COMMON PROBLEMS ON PAINTED SURFACE

• Blistering

Blistering paint is identified by small to medium sized bubbles or blisters under the paint film and is most common on wood siding and trim.

• Alligatoring and Checking

“Alligatoring” is a failure in the paint film where it takes on a cracking pattern of deep relief resembling a reptile’s skin, such as that of an alligator. “Checking” is a similar failure but is less severe and is characterized by long, fairly evenly spaced cracks in the paint film having shallow relief or depth.

• Efflorescence A problem of painted masonry construction, efflorescence is identifiable by crusty white salt deposits that bubble through the paint film from a masonry structure. 

• Chalking is identifiable as a fine chalky powder that forms on the surface of a paint film. In dry arid climates where there is little rain, chalking can become excessive.
• Sagging or Running This paint failure is easily identified as a dripping or drooping look to areas of the paint film.
• Mildew is a fungus feeding and growing on the paint film or caulk and is identifiable by its grey, brown, green or dark black “splotchy” spots.
• Rust Discoloration: This problem is characterized by rust colored reddish-brown to black stains on the paint surface
• Peeling paint is a very common paint problem but can be caused either by moisture or poor adhesion. Peeling due to poor adhesion is characterized by the paint peeling and separating from an earlier paint layer (intercoat peeling) or from the substrate leaving some paint behind.
• Peeling Paint Due to Exterior Moisture Under Paint Film:

Peeling paint is a very common paint problem that can be caused either by moisture or poor adhesion.

Peeling Paint Due to Interior Moisture Under Paint Film :

Peeling of interior paint due to moisture is characterized by cracking and gentle peeling away of the paint from the substrate as it loses adhesion due to the moisture.

References

1.www.ehow.com

2.www.hgtv.com

3.www.gharexpert.com

4. Nissen. L, Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner, 1994, Inside Today’s Home, Wadsworth,Cengage learning, USA, Pg 584-586

Assignment

1. Collect pictures related to different types of paints used for exterior and interior walls.
2. Calculate the painting cost for one room by using any branded paints and any faux painting technique.

CEILINGS – TYPES, MATERIALS AND FUNCTIONS

Ceiling is the third major architectural element and the largest unused area of the interior space. Ceilings play an important visual role in shaping space and limiting vertical dimensions. A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that bounds (“ceils”) the upper limit of a room. The overhead boundary of an interior space is called its ceiling. It is a part of the construction or the underside of an overhead structure. It is highly visible and is usually of major concern in interior design.

Although the conventional ceiling is flat and 9 to 11 feet high, many ceilings depart from these norms for either structural, spatial, or decorative reasons.

Types of ceiling:

• FLAT CEILING: it is usually plastered, painted, or covered with wood strips. The flat-beamed ceiling is one in which the structural beams are exposed or lightweight beams have been applied.
• CATHEDRAL CEILING: it is also called as “gabled or double pitched ceilings”. It expands vertical space, especially when beams extend upward. Placing beams horizontally emphasize the room size.
• SHED OR LEAN-TO CEILING: It rises diagonally to one side in a single slope. The furnishings in a room with this ceiling must be arranged carefully to achieve a comfortable balance.
• COVED CEILING: It meets the wall with a curve instead of a right angle, so ceiling and wall flow into each other. Sometimes the perimeter is made to accommodate recessed lighting, allowing light to shine upward on the ceiling surface.
• TRAY CEILING: it is the ceiling whose middle portion extends vertically up about 6 to 18 inches. Trays may be formed in many shapes and may conceal lighting around the perimeter.
• VAULTED AND DOMED CEILING: these are the arched ceiling structures as opposed to flat planes and can be considered a complete extension of the coved ceiling.
• SCULPTURED CEILING: it is also called as custom designed ceiling. It can be the focal point in the room. Sometimes designed in highly dramatic ways, sculptured ceilings follow no
• COFFERED CEILING: These are popular in past centuries. These are constructed of wooden members in a grid manner, often with moldings and sunken decorative panels. A coffer (or coffering) in architecture an example of direct surfacing, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault. A series of these sunken panels were used as decoration for a ceiling or a vault, also called caissons (‘boxes”), or lacunaria (“spaces, openings”), so that a coffered ceiling can be called a lacunar
• DROPPED CEILING: It has a portion or its entire area lowered below the main structure. This type of ceiling can define an area of the room , provide indirect lighting, and add interest to a living space. Set pattern and usually require ample space for construction and effect.
• Flat ceilings are the most common, however, architectural designs enhance the look of a home.
• Domed ceilings have a dome shape, curved from the sides to the top.
• Cathedral ceilings angle up to a central peak.
• Cove ceilings have a curved edge around the perimeter where the ceiling meets the walls.
• Tray ceilings have an angle around the perimeter where the ceiling meets the walls.
• A shed ceiling has an angle, similar to a cathedral ceiling, to the central peak. The other side of the peak is a solid vertical wall to the floor.

CEILING FINISHES

Ceilings are interior elements that basically have little to do with building enclosure. there are four typical types with many variations

• unfinished
• directly attached ceiling
• suspended ceiling
• separately supported ceiling

Unfinished Ceilings

In this type no additional effort is made to treat the underside of the structure overhead. These types are referred to as unfinished ceilings. This could even be an exposed structure. These are seen in gothic cathedrals. This may develop an attractive view overhead.

Directly Applied Ceiling Finishes

This could simply be paint, a stain or a texture producing material in a thick coating. This is the easiest and most economical form of ceiling construction. If there are a lot of beams overhead, it is advisable to use pre-finished beams. Ceiling may be developed by direct attachment of surfacing materials to the overhead structure. This ceiling is possible when the material of structure spaced in response to the needs of the ceiling surfacing material. In residential construction, dry wall is directly attached to the underside of the closely spaced, light wood rafters or floor joists. Direct attachment will yield the minimum total thickness of the ceiling plus the overhead structure and also provides the space for the building service elements such as ducts and recessed lighting fixtures.

A popcorn ceiling, also known as an acoustic ceiling, is a term for a spray-on or paint-on ceiling treatment. It has a bright white “cottage cheese” texture, often contained asbestos, and has noise reduction qualities. It is cheaper than painting as it can be quickly and easily sprayed on in new construction and is also useful in masking ceiling defects in older homes, such as stains, uneven ceilings or poor workmanship. It was often the standard for bedroom and residential hallways ceilings for its noise reduction qualities.

Popcorn ceilings become unattractive when they get dirty, are easily damaged and are hard to clean, repaint or repair. They can be easily removed by spraying them with water to soften them up and scraping the material off with a large scraping trowel or putty knife.

Direct Finish: Direct finish is thick plaster-like paint on concrete. It brings a smooth or textured finish. This could be Gypsum, Drywall or other panel material attached directly to underside of Structure.

Adhered Finish: This is tile, Stride or Panel units directly adhered to underside of concrete slab. Conventional ceiling consists of drywall panels screwed or nailed to ceiling joists. Joints between panels are taped and finished with drywall compound using the same methods as for walls. With this method, ceilings are normally hung before drywall is applied to walls.

Independent Ceiling Construction

When the ceiling is far below the roof or wherever necessary, the ceiling could be developed totally independent of the overhead structure. This is referred to as independent ceiling construction. In some situations, ceilings may be developed with construction that is totally independent of that overhead. This is the ceiling situated a great long distance from the top of the roof. Span limits may be derived from critical concerns for deflection rather than from actual load carrying capacity.

Suspended Ceilings

Use suspended ceilings when you want to lower a high ceiling. The tiles are suspended on wire grids at any height you wish. They come in a wide variety of materials, including metal, mirror, tin and wood. Once the grid is installed, the tiles just slip into place. The tiles are easy to replace; if sometime down the road you want to change the style, it is as easy as pushing one out and putting the new one in.

A separate ceiling structure may be hung from the over head structure, deriving the support that gives its name suspended ceiling. This type is often used to lower a too-high ceiling or to hide cracks and mechanical equipment, consists of a metal grid that receives removable panels. The entire apparatus is suspended from the ceiling joists or existing ceiling.

 A suspended ceiling consists of a metal grid suspended from joists or the old ceiling and attached at the walls, supporting lightweight ceiling panels. These kind of ceiling structures are usually used to create the space for the equipment and the services that are to be installed. These panels may be made of mineral fiber or fiberglass acoustical board in plain and decorative patterns. These include wood planks and paneling and classic pressed metal panels. They are often coordinated for use with modular lighting and HVAC units in a fully integrated system.

Suspended tile ceilings are often installed to cover damage to the original ceiling, to lower the ceiling or to add acoustical properties for rooms such as a home theater. The tiles are easily removed for cleaning when necessary. Repairs to damaged tiles are performed by simply replacing the damaged tile.

The suspended ceiling has a great use in reducing noise levels and creating particular acoustic in the space. Suspended ceiling consists of a metal casing suspended in the corner and the actual surface that will allow for lights/architectural details (such as ceiling medallions or appliqués). The most common materials used to create a suspended ceiling are metal and wood panels.

Dropped ceiling

A dropped ceiling is a secondary ceiling, hung below the main (structural) ceiling. They may also be referred to as a drop ceiling, false ceiling, or suspended ceiling, and are a staple of modern construction and architecture. The area above the dropped ceiling is called the plenum space, as it is sometimes used for HVAC air return. The plenum space is also very commonly used to conceal piping, wiring, and/or ductwork.

The suspended ceiling was originally developed to conceal the underside of the floor above and to offer acoustic balance and control in a room. The acoustic performance of suspended ceilings has improved dramatically over the years, with enhanced sound absorption and attenuation. This is sometimes achieved by adding insulation known as Sound Attenuation Batts (SABs), more commonly referred to as “sound batts”, above the panels to help deaden sounds and keep adjacent rooms quieter.

Materials for construction of ceilings

The materials are classified into two categories: Those that can attach directly and those that hung from the structure. The different materials used are plaster, gypsum board, glass, plastic, stamped metal, fabric, wood.

 DRY WALL

There are many types of dry wall panels and different special details for their installation. Modifications of the ceiling are designed so that it is fire resistant, greater strength, better sound response or other desired properties.

PLASTER

It is an ancient material that is mainly used as a coating and a protective covering for soft, vulnerable structures, such as abode and soft-mortared brick or stone masonry. It can be flat smooth surface that is used for painters, producing some very rich interior adornments. It is also used along with the historic materials. Real plaster can still be installed, pretty much in the traditional, “wet” method.

 GYPSUM BOARD

It provides insulation and is available in different thicknesses. When it is layered it is highly fire resistant. Glass reinforced gypsum called as GRG, is a light weight composition of high strength gypsum reinforced with glass fibers. It is available in molds of particular sizes and shapes and is used for certain applications.

 GLASS AND PLASTIC

Glass or Plastic panels, either translucent or transparent are used in the ceiling to provide over head light. It can be either natural day light or the artificial recessed light. These panels provide the high illuminations of light. Sky light views provide a good look to interiors.

STAMPED METAL

These ceilings are used in the restoration in the building construction of Victorian buildings and are commonly seen in commercial interiors such as restaurants and retail spaces.

FABRIC

It is not commonly used for ceiling. It can be stretched, shirred, or pasted to the ceiling surface. Its softness provides a comfortable, warm feeling and, when used as a repeating fabric in the room, can unify the interior.

 WOOD

Wood, in strips, panels, beams, or planks, can provide a warm, inviting atmosphere. Because of its visual weight, wood tends to lower the ceiling and create feeling of heaviness unless the ceiling is higher than average. Wood is used in combination of plaster. Wood can be left natural, stained or painted.

 Ceiling tiles

The types and styles of ceiling tiles available today are nearly endless. Ceiling tile is sold in many different materials, sizes and thicknesses and made to fasten directly to ceilings or fit into a grid system called a suspended or drop ceiling. Popular types of ceiling tiles include cork, tin, plastic and acoustical.

Acoustical tiles: Acoustical ceiling tile reduces noise, as it has sound absorbent properties. Good acoustic ceiling tiles are made from spun mineral fibers or fiberglass blended with starch. White is the traditional color of acoustical tiles, but gray, blue and beige are also commonly available. Acoustical ceiling tile is a good choice for music rooms or homes with multiple living spaces, but different thicknesses and brands of acoustic tile have different levels of sound protection, so this type of ceiling tile should be purchased carefully. It is good for a music room or playroom. There are different levels of soundproofing, depending on the material used.

Plastic ceiling tiles: Plastic ceiling tile is made to be fire safe and some of these tiles have metallic finishes to give them the look of embossed tin tiles. These faux tin tiles are made from molded plastic and may have ornate flower patterns and/or crown molding-like borders. Other types of plastic ceiling tile include stone looks and different solid colors. Although they’re inexpensive, plastic tiles provide good ceiling insulation. Plastic ceiling tile gives home extra insulation and save on the energy bill. Plastic ceiling tiles have the look of tin ceiling tiles, but they are much lighter. They also come in a variety of designs from classical Victorian to modern. And they can come with the best fire-resistance rating, and they’re easy to paint.

Tin ceiling tile: is old-fashioned and often quite expensive, but is also very beautiful as it adds a shiny look to ceilings. Tin ceiling tiles can be difficult to cut, so proper tools should be used. Ceiling tile made from other metals such as steel, copper and brass is also sometimes referred to as tin tile. Metal ceiling tiles are often used in commercial as well as residential interiors. Tin ceiling tile can come in individual tiles or in rolls, with the design embossed on the surface. Tin ceilings are not always made of tin. Other materials include brass, steel and copper.

Cork ceiling tiles: are considered as eco-friendly choice as well as quite simple to install. They are available in waxed or un-waxed varieties. Waxing brings out the texture and color in cork as well as gives the tiles a shine, while unfinished cork tiles can add a naturally elegant look to ceilings. Cork insulation tile has good insulating qualities and these tiles are thick with a dark brown color. Cork is lightweight, resistant to rot, and fire resistant when left natural. Cork ceiling tiles come in a wide choice of styles and colors suitable for most homes, and they can come unfinished or with a wax finish. Cork is with low maintenance, easy to install and comes in a choice of thicknesses.

CONSIDERATION WHILE SELECTING CEILINGS

Moisture resistance

Fire resistance

Smoke production when heated or alight

Reflective qualities

Impact resistance (EX: sports halls)

Functions of Ceilings in the Interior

Protection of the elements: Ceiling space often acts as one of the principal areas that services are carried through. Therefore when designing the ceiling careful consideration has to be given to the services that may be carried through it. These may include ventilation and heating ducts, electrical and data cabling, recessed lighting and also areas for fixing suspended lighting, plumbing and to some extent drainage from the bathroom or kitchen above may be carried in the ceiling and in these cases adequate heat and noise or sound insulation should be used. This may take the form of lagging or fibre glass blanket. In all cases the services should be attached to the supporting framing and not the ceiling itself. Do not allow any wiring or ducting or plumbing to rest on the ceiling surface. Good practice is to have all services mechanically fixed to an appropriate frame and then to either be carried over the ceiling or in the case of wiring for lights or ventilation ducts to be allowed to drop and attach to the fitting or penetrate the surface.

Insulation for heating and cooling: The ceiling is one of the primary areas that require heat insulation as this is the area that heat will rise to and in the case of a ceiling under a roof rather than a floor also where heat gain from the sun and therefore into the roof space, an area that will allow heat to enter the habitable space. There are a number of methods to use when insulating, the most common of which is fiberglass wool blanket or bales spread out over the ceiling to create an insulating barrier. It does this by creating an air barrier in the insulation stopping or reducing heat transference.

A source for artificial lighting (and natural lighting when sky lights are used): Lighting fixtures are fixed to the ceiling in the form of suspend lighting, recessed, ceiling mounted etc.  In case of high ceilings, sky lights are provided to let the natural lighting enter into the interiors.

Acoustic barrier for absorbing or reflecting sound: Ceilings are one of the main areas that reflect sound in a clean manner i.e. often the ceiling is a large flat hard plane that is ideal for reflecting sound. Different sound reflection and absorption properties can be achieved by using different shapes and materials to either enhance the reflective properties or reduce them.

For example allowing the sound to be absorbed or passed through the ceiling can be achieved by using softer materials such as padded fabrics, soft boards or leaving perforations or holes in the ceiling. Of course the most obvious way to reduce sound reflection in the room is to stop the reflection on another level such as the floor and walls with soft floor coverings such as carpet and furniture and drapery to absorb sound.

The ceiling may also be used to stop sound transference from the floor above. The main point is to stop or reduce the sound waves from penetrating to the room below.

Aesthetics: Ceiling gives an important element of the character and atmosphere of a room Ceiling can be made of different materials such as timber or PVC, be suspended within a grid with different panels giving different properties, be colored, textured, vaulted, have recessed elements or have a suspended bulkhead. We can create a much more interesting effect and or evoke a different mood by adjusting the finish or shape to the ceiling.

Flame resistant barrier: Ceiling acts as the flame resistant barrier from the roof or floor above. And it meets the standard fire codes.

References

1.http://www.build.com.au/types-ceilings

2.http://www.armstrong.com/residential-ceilings/ceiling-guide.html

3.http://www.doityourself.com/stry/acousticceilings

4. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures related to different types of ceilings and prepare an e-scrap book.
2. Identify the materials and finishes used for the ceilings.

IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF FLOOR

Introduction:

Flooring materials are classified in number of ways depending upon their characteristics. They are discussed as follows

Classification-I

Based on classification-I flooring can be divided into two broad categories: non resilient and resilient.

Hard or Non resilient flooring resists denting because of its hardness. Examples of this type of flooring are marble and other types of stones, terrazzo, and ceramic tile. 

Soft or Resilient flooring refers to those types made from materials that have a certain amount of cushiony effect. Impact will dent the flooring, but these impressions will more or less fade away as the material springs back to its natural shape. The more the dents disappear, the more resilient the flooring.

Examples of resilient flooring are wood, cork, rubber, vinyl and vinyl composition products. 

Non-porous floors:

Non porous floors are usually the most durable, but they are non-resistant to impact and they break very easily if hard substances dropped on it.

Semi-porous floor:

They are water proof and resistant (non-impervious) to oils and grease. They tend to react badly to spirit solvents such as petrol, paraffin. 

Porous floor:

These are not water proof or grease proof and likely to stain. If they are sealed they become a non porous surface. The softer and more porous the floor, the more sealer is needed.  

Carpets and rugs: Carpets and rugs are soft floor coverings made in a different weaves, fibers, textures and colors.

Carpet is the most luxurious of soft flooring material. They add beauty, comfort and warmth to a room and also absorb sound. The carpet will be warmer and soft with the dense pile and thick pad. Smaller carpets are termed as Rugs.

Rugs are handmade with patterns which are very old. Usually rugs are used to define areas such as group seating, dining, and conversation areas.

Types of traditional flooring material

Some of the traditional flooring material which is commonly used are discussed in the following. 

Mud Flooring:

In a topical country like India mud floors are commonly constructed in villages. They are cheap, hard fairly impervious, easy in construction and easy to maintain. They are best suited to areas where extreme temperature variations exist because they remain warm in winter and cold in summer. The ground floor having its topping consisting of muram or mud is called muram or mud flooring. These are generally used for nonresidential and commercial buildings. 

Characteristics:

• They maintain uniform temperature because of good thermal insulation property.
• They are fairly impervious.

Maintenance:

• The floor is maintained by giving a wash with cement and cow dung slurry once or twice a week. 

Muram Flooring:

Any disintegrated rock is called as Muram. Muram floors are constructed in India because of the same reasons as that of mud floors. They possess similar characteristic as that of mud. Its construction technique is difficult than mud floor. 

Characteristics:

• Same as mud floor.

Maintenance:

• Same as mud floor. 

Brick flooring:

This type of flooring is suitable for ware houses, stores and go downs. Also brick flooring is common in the place where stone availability is less and good quality burnt bricks are readily available. It is durable and hard. It is cheaper than cement concrete, mosaic flooring. It is non slippery and easily repairable. The ground floor having its topping consisting of bricks is known as brick floor. 

Characteristics:

• It easily absorbs moisture from the surrounding area and may cause dampness in the building.
• Can be constructed and repaired easily
• It provides rough surface.
• It is durable and hard.
• Non-slippery. 

Maintenance:

Easy to maintain with sweeping and mopping 

Concrete Flooring:

Concrete is the primary structural material of floor in most contemporary structures. Bare concrete surface can be covered with colored cement flooring. This is called as Indian Patent Stone (IPS). This type of flooring is commonly used in residential, commercial and public buildings and also for utility and service areas. Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine sand (aggregate) and coarse crushed stone (coarse aggregate). These are mixed in dry form and then combined with water, to form concrete mixture. This flooring requires curing with water for longer duration. Curing agent (generally water) controls the drying process so that maximum hardness can be achieved. The surface of interior concrete floors may be enhanced by the application of floor finish. Color sealing can be applied. 

Maintenance:

Easy to maintain with sweeping and mopping and with water. Polishing can be done to regain shining. 

Stone flooring:

Stone tiles and slabs range from the economical kota stone, thandur, kadapa to costlier variety of marble and granite with a wide variety of colors. These are very durable, easy to maintain and good for heavy traffic areas. Although stone is extremely hard wearing but cold and noisy. It looks unattractive if stained. Costs vary according to type. It is perfect for the corridors, lobbies, halls and kitchens. Marble and granite, due to their ease of maintenance are extensively used in public places such as hotels, hospitals and corporate offices. Some stones are more porous and such stone can be sealed based on supplier advice. 

Marble:

It is the best known natural stone. The word Marble is derived from the Greek word “Marmown” meaning rock, shining stone. Most of the marbles are made up of naturally occurring compositions of calcium carbonate. It is a hard wearing material. It comes in many beautiful shades. It is expensive and difficult to cut. It is available in slabs and tiles. Marbles are quarried mainly in Rajasthan. It can take beautiful polish because of its heaviness. It can crack easily and difficult to install.

Granite:

Granite is preferred for the durability and high glossy polish. It is extensively quarried in the south, except the pink variety in Rajasthan. Colors range from black, grey, brown and pink( red). Granite is a hard igneous stone i.e produced by heat or the action of volcano and solidified from a molten state. It is made of quartz, mineral, feldspar and some mica. It is available both in slab and in tile form. Slabs are cut and polished in a factory. It needs processing and many processing units to cut into ½” thickness. Usually the tiles are available in 1’x 2’size and also in square. This cut size is also known as dimensioned stone tile. These stones are graded to various groups ranging for A to D. the top grade(A) is uniform and consistent and it can be layed without much fear off breaking them.

Characteristics:

• Susceptible to serve damage from humidity and acid which occurs with the stones themselves.
• In the natural environment the effect of humidity and acids are controlled by evaporation.
• If stones are coated with material which prevents natural evaporation and accumulate within the stone it will cause them to break down internally and eventually crack, powder and chip off the surface (spell).
• Marble gets stains easily.
• The vitreosity of stone varies. For instance marble is porous but granite is usually dense.

Maintenance:

• Needs polishing.
• No surface treatment.
• Do not use acid and alkaline cleaner.
• Can be maintained with sweeping and mopping with less water.

Quarry tile

They are usually square or rectangular and come in a range of colors from buff, yellow, red, brown, blue and black. Often it is referred as unglazed terracotta tile. They are made from unrefined extruded high silica alumina clay to an almost glass like hardness. These tiles can be used with under floor heating and are cheap but depends on thickness. These tiles are used in kitchen and entrance because of pervious to water. They are available in various surfaces for certain advantages. For instance to increase the slip resistance on watery or greasy floor, surface finish is given. However, it can be a problem to mop. Quarry tiles include terecotta, kadapa, shabhad, and slate. These are made to ½” to 3/4“ thickness. They come in various sizes and shapes i.e. 4 to 12” squares, hexagons, rectangles. These can be either semi vitreous or vitreous (water absorption varies). They can be glazed or left unglazed but unglazed must be sealed for protection against moisture and stains. 

Characteristics:

• They are fairly noisy
• Stain resistance
• They are cold
• They are hard
• Will break if it is dropped
• They are naturally resistant to scrubbing and wear. 

Maintenance:

• Mop with a brush and a wet vacuum.
• Needs waxing.

Comparative glance on flooring materials

Mosaic

Mosaic is the most ancient and elegant flooring comes in glass silica, clay or marble with glazed or unglazed finish. Mosaic is the decorative art of creating pictures and patterns on a surface by setting small colored pieces of glass, marble or other materials in a bed of cement, plaster or adhesive.

Mosaic tiles are made out of marble chips in a white or colored cement mortar binder. This is the most widely used flooring material which is durable and economical. It comes in range of colors and design. The surface polishing carried out after the tiles are fixed.

Characteristics:

• It is cool
• It makes noise
• It is durable and hard
• Uneven surface required grouting in order to collection of dirt in the joints and uneven surfaces.

Maintenance:

• Can be maintained with daily sweeping and mopping with plain water.
• Occasionally mild detergent can be used to remove stubborn dirt and stains. 

Terrazzo

It is composed of irregular shaped marble chips in a matrix of Portland cement. It has the properties of both concrete and stone flooring. A terrazzo floor can last indefinitely. Usual colors include brown, black, red, gray and yellow mixed with white. It is suitable for use with under floor heating. Terrazzo flooring is laid in sections of different colors creating complex and beautiful designs.

These sections often are separated by metal stripping. Strips control cracking because of cold or heat. It is suitable for hotel lobbies, banks, office and for exterior flooring because of its wear-resisting properties. 

Characteristics:

• It needs no artificial or applied finish and has natural shine that resists wear.
• It is not slippery.
• Pitting is a common problem of neglected terrazzo surface, strong alkalies, salt, and acids causes black discoloration. In addition to this cracking can result from the dissolving of marble chips and the matrix.

Maintenance:

• Do not clean with strong acid or alkaline solution.
• Maintain with sweeping and water wash. 

Ceramic Tiles

The word tile is derived from the French tuile derived from Latin word tegula meaning a roof tile composed of baked clay. Ceramic tile are formed by ceramic slurry which is cast in a mould and fired. Tiling was extensively used by the simhalase kings of ancient Srilanka. They used polished stone tile for flooring in swimming pool.

Historically tile has been used for roofing, wall decoration, for flooring and for walking path steps for thousands of years. Tile flooring has many different materials ranging from ceramic, stone, and glass. The most common one is ceramic. Floor tiles are set into mortor consisting of sand, and cement. The gap or space between the tiles are filled with sanded or unsanded filling material. 

Vitreous flooring refers to flooring materials that have been made of clay material and fired in a kiln to produce a hard, stone like quality. Ceramic flooring is more common name for this type of material. Basically these are composed of silicon materials (aluminum silicate) that are much like glass which flow together and bond during the firing process.  These tiles are used in kitchen, toilets and other locations where water is present. Some varieties of ceramic tiles are vitrified and some are glazed. The commonly known ceramic tile brand names such as kajaria, Regency, Nitco, Jhonson and so on are available in sizes varying from 8”x4” to 12”x12”. Mat finished, antiskid tiles are preferred as flooring particularly for wet areas. Patterns range from flowery to geometric and range of shades include blue, green, grays and many. Ceramic tiles are machine made, plain or patterned, glazed or unglazed, smooth or hard textured.

Characteristics:

• They are hard-wearing
• They are impervious to water and soil.
• Resistance to abrasion and wax.
• Glazed tiles are resistance to wear and totally non-absorbent but it become scratched it loses its shine and also from abrasion and dust particles.
• If any hard object (even vessels/ dishes) is dropped to tiles may break, crack or chip.
• They are cool to the feet and are used in hot climate.
• They can be a noisy surface.

Summary:

• Non resilient or hard flooring is durable and economical. It is available in tile form. A variety of colors and sizes are available. These are modern flooring materials and are man-made. The most common are mosaic and ceramic tiles. Non-resilient flooring when they are wet they become slippery. 

Resilient Flooring: 

Resilient flooring is a hard surface covering with a bit of give and bounce. Resilient refers to those types made from materials that have a certain amount of softness. Impact will dent the flooring but this impression will more or less fade away as the material springs back to its natural shape when the impact is removed. The more dents disappear the more resilient the flooring. Elastic or resilient materials of various kinds including linoleum , cork, rubber and vinyl and its composition products are used for floor. Resilient floors are durable, easier to maintain and more moisture resistant than other materials. Most resilient floor demand little care i.e. damp mopping. 

Resilient flooring is available in two types:

1. Sheet form that is sold from rolls (examples- Vinyl) Comes in roll-(like carpet) with standard width of 6, 9 and 12 foot.
2. Resilient tiles: available in square shape and solid vinyl and vinyl asbestose (known as “u-a” in the flooring industry) and rubber. 

Linoleum flooring is made up of oxidized linseed oil or a combination of drying oils, wood flour, ground cork, resins and pigment. This compound is mixed and pressed and heated to bind the elements. This product has wide application in many older buildings but its use is being largely superseded by vinyl based products.  Today Linoleum is no longer manufactured but now dealers use this term for vinyl

Vinyl FLOORING:

Vinyl has become a valued design tool for many interior designers and architects. It is used particularly for designing of heavy –traffic locations such as grocery store, hospital rooms, operation rooms where cleanliness is top priority. Now a days, they are preferred even in residential buildings. Vinyl flooring is made out of vinyl plastics (polyvinyl chloride or PVC) and in adding vinyl resin, fillers, plasticizers, stabilizers and pigments.

It is used over the floors of residential and public building to improve the durability appearance and to hide the defects. It should be used over damp proof surface and not recommended for basements. Once it is fixed with glue it cannot be lifted. In general there are two types of vinyl flooring i.e sheet and tile.

Characteristics:

• It provides comfort while walking.
• Moderately warm with cushioning effect.
• Stain resistance
• Offers adequate insulation against noise and heat.
• Slip resistant
• It rotten when kept wet for sufficient time.
• Does not offer resistance against fire.
• It is easy to cut and light in weight.
• It supports static load and durable under heavy foot traffic and use. 

Maintenance:

• Daily sweeping and mopping with clean wet mop.
• Do not use emission polish.

Rubber FLOORING:

Rubber flooring is made from natural substance that is able to bounce back from being stuck. Rubber flooring is being used to a large extent in public and industrial buildings because of their good wearing qualities and resiliency and noise insulation. Rubber flooring material is made up of pure rubber mixed with fillers such as cotton fiber, granulated cork or asbestos fiber and the desired coloring pigments. It is available in various degrees of flexibility and hardness. Some are extremely soft and used as anti fatigue flooring while very hard rubber is used for stair treading. It is not recommended for installation where there is moisture problem because of difficulty in cleaning. The first major installation of rubber flooring was at the Frankfurt Airport in 1969.

Characteristics:

• Rubber maintains good luster without finishing.
• It has a good resistance to chemicals and surface moisture.
• Oil, grease makes the floor slippery and it is difficult to restore the original condition.
• It offers insulation against noise and heat
• It resists cigarette burns.
• It is anti slippery.

Maintenance:

• It can be easily washed and cleaned
• Mild alkaline cleaner can be used (however harsh alkali damage) but should not be left on surface more than 5 minutes because it causes leaching and damage the rubber floor.
• For studded rubber flooring use of wet vacuum is the best method. 

Summary:

Floor materials are classified into number of ways depending upon their characteristics. Rugs and Carpets are not considered as floor materials but they are used over the flooring finishes with the selected floor materials.

References:

1. P. Arora and S.P Bindra 1990 A text book of Building Construction, Dhanpat Rai and sons Delhi.
2. Sumil Kumar 1981, Building construction 8^th Edition Standard publishers Delhi.
3. P.Parimalam, A.Andal and M.R. Premalatha (2008) A text book of Interior Decoration, Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
4. robbinsfloor.com

Assignment

1. Collect pictures from the magazines to depict different types of flooring materials.
2. Write a brief notes on maintenance of different flooring materials.

TYPES OF FLOOR COVERING 

INTRODUCTION

Floor coverings include carpets and rugs which are also known as soft floor covering as they give cushioning effect. A soft floor covering makes a room comfortable and gives a finished appearance.

The soft floor covering includes the carpet and rugs. The word carpet comes from the Latin word ‘carepre’ meaning to card wool.  Since carpets were originally made with wool, they were appropriately termed as carpets. They bring warmth and comfort under the feet, soften and muffle the sound more effectively than any other surface materials. They offer safety against slippery on high glossy surface.

1. Carpet:

A carpet is generally a soft floor covering fastened to the entire floor and sold by the roll in widths. Wall-to-wall, stairs and hall carpets are examples of this kind. Wall-to-wall carpeting permits to conceal the worn out floors.

The first carpet loom produced fabrics 27 inches wide which were cut into length that had to be sewed together. In the early 20th century, wider looms were developed to permit carpets to be installed with little or no joining. These were called ‘broadlooms’. Broadloom carpet means any carpet made on a wider loom. It refers to carpeting 54 inches wider. The standard widths today are 9, 12 and 15 feet. Broadloom may be used as wall-to-wall carpeting.

2. Rug:

Rugs are used to prevent wearing out in spots and more easily handled and cleaned. Rugs are adaptable for use in different rooms in a house. Those who move from place to place often should have rugs of standard size. These rugs can be lifted, moved and changed

3. Floor mats:

Floor mat or door mats are used at entrance to remove optimum soil. These mats near the door should be changed as often as necessary. These entrance mats are integral to the floor filling down into recessed frames so that they are not easily dislodged by movement traffic. These are used for important purposes and they are

• To remove dirt, mud or water at entrance so that floors will not become heavily soiled.
• To provide comfort.
• To eliminate the danger of slipping.
• To prevent wear on floor.

 Advantages of carpet

1. Sound absorption: This is the most appealing feature particularly in multi floor, older and high ceiling houses.
2. Softness: Carpet can help in combating the angularity of a room’s architecture. Because of surface texture it is a natural softening agent.
3. Versatility: It is not restricted to only floor; it is equally effective as a wall covering too.
4. Easy maintenance: it is easy to maintain. However, fiber construction accounts a lot for cleanability.
5. Warmth: Carpet can help to eliminate the cold that radiates from a chilled hard surface floor.
6. Camouflage: Carpet tends to mask any irregularities in the surface levels of the floor. It can be used over an existing floor, no matter what its condition is.

The recent innovation is indoor and outdoor types of carpeting. It can be used on terrace, swimming pool, and playroom. Outdoor carpets have different textural qualities i.e. from the convention softness to new texture that can withstand weather, stains. Several synthetic fibers particularly acrylic are being used.

Rugs

A movable unit of carpet is called as a rug. Usually it is smaller in size than the space in which is used. Rugs are generally manufactured in a wide range of colors, textures, pattern, sizes and fibers. They are named and identified by local characteristics, styles, motifs used by the weavers of particular regions e.g. Oriented rugs, Turkish rugs so on. Crafted rugs are also used as wall hangings.

The floor rugs come mainly from Persia, China, Turkey and India. They are handmade with patterns which are hundreds of years. This handicraft has been practiced throughout the world by groups of people with different materials, methods and designs. The designs represent the artistic development of the people and their customs, beliefs and values.

Rugs are made or cut into room or area dimensions and loosely laid. These are called as room size rugs and area spot rugs. The type of weaves and piles applied to carpet construction also applied to the rugs construction. Rugs can be used in many ways such as accents rugs over the existing carpets to highlight flooring for instance wood flooring and to spot light or emphasize the area grouping.

Types of rugs

I. Areas rugs:

Room-Sized rugs:  Can be cut to fit any room. Any length of carpet can be purchased in standard widths. They cover a room within about 3-9 inches of its border. For example, to cover the floor of a room of 11′ x 16′, a standard finished  9′ x 12′ rug would be small; a 12′ x 15′ would be too wide. A wise size would be   10′ x 15′ rug. The rug would then have a 6″ border or floor area seen around the edges.

Area Spot-rugs:  Cover only a small area of the floor. They may be of a solid color, and usually they are bold pattern. They are useful to change the proportions of a room, to define areas within a room or to give a room a splash of color, warmth and design. There are two kinds of area rugs

1. Accent rugs: Resemble area rugs but are usually more dramatic in pattern, shape, texture and color. They are often used for decorative effects. Oriental hooked and braided rugs are usually included as accent rugs even though some of them are of room sizes. These are small and vivid and some of them are the prettiest, inexpensive and exquisite.
2. Scatter rugs: are smaller rugs that add spots of color and texture to make a bare floor look interesting. They are often used to protect areas that are subject to heavy wear or soiling. They are inexpensive and can easily be washed. Accent and scatter rugs are ideal to bring a color and texture to relive the dullness of the flooring such as concrete flooring.

II. Rugs Based on construction modes:

• Flat Woven rugs: are made on looms. They have no pile. They are usually inexpensive and intended for casual use. Grass, fiber and other flat rugs have been improved so much in appearance that they are suitable for indoors as well as on porches.

1. Fiber rugs: are made from spruce-wood paper twists or yams woven in the basket, or Jacquard weave. They are durable when dry but disintegrate when wet.
2. Wool and Fiber rugs: are woven on cotton warp with alternate strands of wool and fiber.
3. Grass rugs: The chattai or grass mat is an indispensable part of an Indian household. These are the traditional floor coverings in rural areas and are woven in the simplest over-and-under weave from continuous undyed grass strands. They are made from a special variety of grass, called ‘kora’ grass. These mats are textured. They are low cost and are available in different widths.
4. Coir and Jute matting: An alternative to high cost quality furnishing is the economical coir and jute matting as floor coverings. Made from coconut husk, the fibrous center covering of the coconut husk, the coir fiber is natural, bio-degradable and environment friendly. It is tough and durable, versatile and resilient, resistant to flame and fungi, provides insulation and helps sound modulation. The same applies to jute but coir is long lasting, while jute has a tendency to fade and wear out towards the edges. Coir, however, is a coarser material.
   Coir and jute floor products range from doormats to wall-to-wall matting rolls, matting tiles and rubberized coir.
5. Sisal rugs: The new sisal(coir and sea grass)- wool look carpets are proving popular. Sisal rugs are made from a tough, heavy fiber obtained from the leaves of a plant. Some strands are dyed and then used for making rugs.
6. Linen rugs: These are medium in cost, wear very well, look well and come in a large variety of plain or mixed colors. They are useful in dining rooms, sun rooms, porches and halls.
7. Rag rugs: These are usually made of cotton rags, in fairly light colors. They are washable and durable but light in weight. Dhurries are an easy substitute for expensive rugs with its range of colors and affordable price. Also, they are reversible. A dhurrie, thus, lasts longer and is cheaper, easier to maintain than a carpet.
8. Velvet rugs: Velvet is the simplest form of weave. They are made by woven construction on a rather simple loom that does not require use of yam underneath the pile; therefore, the velvets are less resilient and less expensive. The velvet method is also called a tapestry weave when it is used with a low uncut pile for special effect.
9. Tufted Rugs:
   Tufted rugs are gaining popularity in today’s world. The process involved in construction of it is  cheaper than weaving on a loom.
10. Handmade rugs:
    Rug making as a handicraft has been practiced throughout the world by many groups of people with different materials, methods and designs. Each design represents artistic development of the people as well as their customs, beliefs and values.

Durries

Durry is a cotton spread without piles, which traditionally comes in two varieties: one that is used on the bed instead of a mattress or below a thin cotton mattress and the other which is used as a floor covering.

The technique of durry weaving can be seen in its most primitive form in the villages of Rajasthan, Punjab Karnataka and Haryana.

Namdhas

The Indian namdah, a kind of felt rug, durrie or carpet, is an all-purpose article, indispensable to daily life. It can be used as a floor bed, pillow, dining table, door partition, wardrobe and a suitcase, while travelling.

The namdha is a speciality of Kashmir, which is so named because of the embroidery with woollen thread that completely covers the base of hessian.

References:

1. Madelin Schneider And Georgina Tucker (1989), The professional House keeper 3^rd edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
2. Premavathy Seetharaman And Parveen Pannu (2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
3. Terence Concern’s New House Book “The complete Guide to Home Design: 2002 edition Octopus Publishing Group Ltd, London.
4. Martin Miller 2002, Ortho’s All about the Floors and Flooring, Meredith Publishing Group.

Assignment

1. Conduct a market survey to identify the types, sizes and cost of rugs available in the stores.
2. Prepare a note method on laying carpet in the interiors.

SELECTION, CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FLOOR COVERING

FLOORS

Today the market is flooded with number of flooring outlets and you will discover a large choice for selection of flooring materials out of which one of them will be ideal or suitable to your house. To make a choice you have to be prepared with your priority, requirements and need before you shop for flooring. Whatever your choice of flooring might be, it must meet the most important three functional qualities viz, comfort, cost including maintenance and wear and tear to the traffic and intended activities in the room. The following guidelines and factors will facilitate for wise selection of flooring material.

Guidelines for selection of flooring material:

• Consider the type of activities takes place in the room: Veranda, Living, Kitchen, Dinning, and Guest room, Bed room, and Study room.
• Consider the type of activities takes place on the floor: Dancing, Exercise, playing and lying.
• Consider the Usage of areas exposed to movement traffic wear and tear: Light, moderate, and heavy.
• Is there direct access to the outdoor or garden?
• Is there overflow of water from: bathroom, sinks, washing machine, Dishwasher, Indoor potted plant. Want to match up the flooring with- An existing decorative scheme
• Consider architectural style.
• Consider existing and future purchase of Furniture:
• Consider the durability of the flooring:
• Decide whether you want to provide sound and heat insulation to your floor:
• Estimate the cost of installation of the flooring i.e whether it requires company professional/Local professional and extra installation changes than normal rates.
• Does the flooring material require preliminary work before final laying.
• Consider market survey analysis for comparative information to know the varied cost and alternative flooring to fit into your budget.

Important Factors for consideration for selection of flooring

Each type of floor has its own merits and demerits. There is no single flooring material which can be suitable for all circumstances and for different purposes in different buildings such as residential, institutional, industrial, and go-downs. However, the selection of flooring should be made by considering the following factors:

1. Initial Cost: The cost of laying and maintenance is very important. It widely varies for different types of flooring materials. The marble, granite and rubber tiles are considered to be the most expen­sive whereas the floorings, viz., Terrazzo, mosaic, vinyl, ceramic tile are moderately expensive. The floors, made of concrete and brick, are the cheapest type of flooring. It should be ensured that the comparative cost of for different floors, i.e. the costs of both, final laying and preparation of sub-floor to be accounted. Usually high quality flooring reduces long term maintenance and repair expenses and cheaper or lower cost flooring is often les durable.
2. Appearance: Flooring should produce a desired beautiful effect in conformity with the building. Generally, floorings of ceramic tiles, marble and granite provide a good appearance while concrete; brick flooring gives an ordinary appearance.
3. Cleanliness: Flooring should be non-absorbent and capable of being easily and effectively cleaned. All joints in flooring should offer a water-tight surface. Greasy and oily substances should neither spoil the appearance nor should have a destroying effect on the flooring materials.
4. Durability: The flooring material should offer sufficient resistance to wear and tear, temperature, chemical action, so as to provide long life. The flooring should be strong enough to withstand the effects of anticipated foot, material and furniture load traffic without undue deterioration. It should withstand severer load abrasion, weight of furniture and equipment.
5. Damp-Resistance: Ground floor, should offer sufficient resistance against dampness in the building to ensure healthy environment. Normally the floors of ceramic tiles, concrete, bricks are preferred floors against dampness. The use of flooring material, like wood, Rubber, linoleum, cork should be avoided for floors in damp situation.
6. Sound Insulation: According to modern building concepts, a floor should neither create noise when used nor should transmit noise, particularly in a vertical direction specially for buildings such as Libraries, Hospitals, Educational buildings and Theatres.. In case of ground or basement floors, the sound vibrations are less because of the contact with the mass of the earth. Hence, it is more important factor for upper floors, where they are supposed to act as horizontal barriers for the passage of sound in vertical direction. Rubber flooring provides excellent sound insulation.
7. Thermal Insulation: It should be possible for a building to maintain constant temperature or heat inside the building irrespective of change in the external temperature. The flooring should reduce the demand for internal heating during winter and cooling in summer. The floors of wood, rubber, cork, are best suited for this purpose.
8. Smoothness: The floor should be of superior type so as to exhibit a smooth and even surface. But at the same time, it should not be slippery.
9. Hardness: It is desirable to use good quality floor materials which do not give rise to any form of impact mark imprints, when used for supporting the loads or moving the loads over them. Normally the hard surfaces such as concrete, marble, granite, and ceramic tile do not show any impressions whereas, rubber, and cork; do form the marks on the surfaces.
10. Comfort: The flooring material should be such that it gives comfort to the occupants under relaxing and working conditions.
11. Fire Resistance: Relatively this is an important factor in the selection of upper flooring material. However, the flooring material should offer sufficient resistance to fire, in order to safeguard the life and goods within a building. The floor material should be made of fire-resisting or non-combustible materials. The floorings of com­bustible materials like cork, linoleum, should be laid on fire-resistant base only.

12. Maintenance: Maintenance cost includes repair, polishing, and waxing.It is always desired that the maintenance cost should be as low as possible. Generally ceramic, marble and concrete, require less maintenance as compared to the wood floors.
13. Light reflection: The floor should reflect more light. White ceramic tile reflects more light than concrete floor. Light color reflects more light than dark color flooring.
14. Floor design: In the selection of flooring one should consider the slip resistant and transition area in the floor design. Walking from carpet floor or non-slippery floor to a glazed tile floor or more slippery floor, walking surface could increase the chances of slip and fall due to the individual’s lack of detection of the transition because of change in the slip resistance and adjustment accordingly. In general flooring should have slip resistance property when transitioning between different types of flooring. Another important consideration is surface roughness. Surface roughness affects friction. Selection of flooring material with adequate surface roughness may potentially reduce slip and fall accidents.

 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SELECTING FLOOR COVERINGS  

1. Economy:

Although the cost of the floor covering is important, at the same time the economy of upkeep is equally important.

2. Resilience or Cushion impact:

It is the degree of springiness with which a carpet returns to its original condition after weight is removed. It reduces the foot fatigue. When floor is carpeted there is less breakage of things when dropped on it. It is especially good for children because they do not get hurt when they fall.

3. Warmth:

This feature depends on the climatic conditions of the area. Usually it is desired that all the carpets and rugs provide warmth to the foot.

4. Reflection:

It is usually associated with ceilings and walls, but much more light hits the floor day and night. The more light the floor reflects, the brighter the home will be.

5. Sound absorption:

Rough, porous material lessens noise. Carpeting helps in insulation against sound.

6. Safety:

Carpets and rugs provide safety from falls, slips, skidding, as well as flame retardency. Kitchens and bathrooms should be given special considerations.

7. Anti-Static:

Anti-static is the ability of floor coverings to disperse electrostatic charges and prevent a buildup of surface static electricity. Nylon will build up a great deal of static electricity unless an anti-static finish is applied.

8. Aesthetics:

The principles and elements of design should be used to create the effect one desires. Floor coverings should harmonize with the furnishings and architecture of the house.

Maintenance and Care:

There is a difference between maintenance and cleaning when it comes to carpet. Most people only clean it, and they do not do that until it is really too late to remove the embedded soil. The management of most hotels waits until the carpet looks dirty before the shampooing begins, and then it cannot possibly be cleaned. About 70 percent of the dirt in carpets is less than 3 microns which cannot be seen by human eye because in size. Human eye can see only 10 microns. By the time dirt is noticed in the carpet, there is so much of it that the fibers really can never come as clean as they were when the fabric was new.

Carpets and rugs are widely used now-a-days for residential and commercial interiors and public institutions. Specific care and maintenance of the carpet and rugs depends upon the cleanliness of the air condition of the floor, color of the carpet and rugs, types of activities takes place and mode of usage by the users. All these affect the amount of soil accumulation and this call for type and methods of stain and soil removal and frequency of clearing i.e. daily, weekly and periodical cleaning.

Stains should be removed immediately. Vacuum cleaning is necessary at intervals varying widely with uses, and less frequently, dry cleaning or shampooing which are best done in-situ, is required.

For average carpet wear, the following care is suggested:

1. Daily: Once brush lightly with a hand-push sweeper.
2. Weekly: Thorough cleaning with a vacuum cleaner to remove deeply embedded soil and grit.
3. Periodically: Depending upon traffic, most carpets need to be cleaned by professionals. You can clean your carpets by yourself with wet/dry treatments; but home cleaning cannot equal professional cleaning.

Good care extends the life of soft floor coverings. Where and how you live determines the amount of cleaning needed. Such things as the cleanliness of the air, the condition of the grounds around the home, and the number of family members as well as the family activities will affect the amount of Soiling.

For normal usage daily brushing once with hard brush and spot stain removing is ideal. Weekly cleaning with vacuum cleaner helps to remove deeply embedded soil and grit. However, periodically carpets and rugs needs wet and air dry treatment is needed to extend the life of the carpets and rugs. Care should be taken to follow the instructions given by the manufactures while using stain remover and shampooing.

Carpets unlike other flooring materials can look clean even when it is soiled. This is because dirt particles settle down from the surface and into the carpet material. They do damage when you walk on it. There are number of effective cleaning method that you can effectively adopt.

Carpet care is different for residential and in public areas. Before discussing cleaning machine some protective measures would help in case of carpets:

• Carpet care should begin with use of floor mats or runners to prevent soil or moisture from shoes slipper near the door or near the carpet/ before stepping on carpet. This very essential in public place.
• Floor mats and runners have important purposes in care and maintenance of carpet.

1. To remove dirt, mud or water at entrances so that floor/carpet will not become heavily soiled.
2. To provide comfort for people standing and walking in specific area.
3. To eliminate the danger of slipping or skidding.
4. To prevent wear on carpet.
5. To control noise.

Some of these carpets and runners will cling properly to the floor and some may require adhesive to hold them in place.

Some entrance mats may be planned as integral to the floor i.e fitting down into recessed frames so that they are not easily dislodged by movement/traffic.

Spot cleaning. As soon as spills occur, they should be cleaned up. If spotting cannot be done as soon as a spill is made, it should be at­tended to before daily vacuuming or dry foam shampooing. Early blotting of liquid spills with a soft, absorbent paper towel or cloth reduces the chances that a spot will become permanent.

Carpets and rugs are widely used for any residential interiors for their protective and aesthetic advantages. They are not an ideal choice where there is likely to be certain amount of splashing and appalling of water but they highly preferred for high and traffic areas like commercial places, offices and public institution.

METHODS OF REMOVING COMMON PROBLEMS WHILE USING CARPETS

Here’s an overview of some of the more common carpet problems and what (if anything) you can do about them.

CORNROWING is a condition you’ll recognize if some of the rows of your carpet begin to stand out and others don’t. High­ density carpet is less prone to cornrowing because fiber tufts that are packed together tightly tend to support each other, even when stretched apart during installation. Vacuuming generally won’t help. Special carpet rakes might help, but not permanently.

CRUSHING is the loss of pile thickness due to normal traffic. Vacuuming will lift the pile, but it can’t replace worn fiber.

FADING can be caused by furnace fumes and sunlight. Have your furnace serviced regularly and close the drapes when the room is not in use to minimize fading.

SHEDDING is natural, caused by loose fibers left over from the manufacturing process rising to the surface. It will disappear within a year if you vacuum regularly.

RIPPLES are usually caused by improper stretching or a failed cushion. They can also appear where humidity is high. Have a professional installer remove them by re-stretching the carpet.

SPROUTING is the sudden appearance of one or two yarns for no apparent reason. Don’t pull out carpet sprouts; snip them off at the level of the rest of the tufts.

DENTS caused by furniture can be minimized with wide furniture glides. You can sometimes work them out with your fingers. If that doesn’t work, moisten the area, warm it slightly with a hair dryer, and ease the fibers into position with the back of a spoon.

Storage and Handling

Carpet must be stored and handled with care to prevent damage and to facilitate the proper installation of the product.

Storage – Carpet and related materials must be stored in a climate controlled, dry space. Carpet must be adequately protected from dirt, dust, moisture, and other contaminants and stored on a flat surface. Stacking heavy objects on top of carpet rolls should be avoided.

Handling – Carpet shall be transported in a manner that prevents damage and distortion. Bending or folding of individual carpet rolls is not recommended. When bending or folding is unavoidable for delivery purposes, the carpet should be unrolled and allowed to lie flat immediately upon arrival at the installation area.

Condition carpet – Carpet should be unrolled and allowed to relax prior to the commencement of installation. To facilitate relaxation, pre-cutting of carpet is recommended.

• When you bring a carpet home store it on clean surface in a dry area.
• It is better to roll carpet with a plastic sheet underneath while storing.
• Roll and unroll carpet in the direction of the pile.
• Roll the carpet loosely.

References

1. Madelin Schneider And Georgina Tucker (1989), The professional House keeper 3^rd edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
2. Premavathy Seetharaman And Parveen Pannu (2009) Interior Design and Decoration. CBS Publishers and Distributors Pvt Ltd. New Delhi.
3. Terence Concern’s New House Book “The complete Guide to Home Design: 2002 edition Octopus Publishing Group Ltd, London.
4. Martin Miller 2002, Ortho’s All about the Floors and Flooring, Meredith Publishing Group.

Assignment

1. Prepare notes on maintenance of carpets and rugs made of different materials.
2. Identify through market survey about the types of cleaning materials available for carpets and rugs.

WINDOWS, DOORS, VENTILATORS – IMPORTANCE AND TYPES

INTRODUCTION

Doors, windows and ventilators are the openings in the house which let lighting and ventilation. Doors are meant for movement of people and furniture from one room to another room, from inside to outside etc.

A door is a movable structure used to provide access to connect accessible areas, typically consisting of a panel that swings on hinges or that slides or rotates inside of a space. A door can be defined as an operable barrier secured in a wall opening. Door design and types differs with type of building and style, purpose of enclosure, location, material, transparency, and cost. Doors are built-in with door hinges, stoppers; security- bolts, latches, safety bolt, locks, peep holes, knocker, view glass, burglar precautions chain, key hole, knobs and handles, house number plate and finger plates to increase its function and utility.

Functions of door:

• Doors serve as a connecting link between the various exterior and interior portions of a building
• Doors when open, admit ventilation and light, facilitate views and act as a barrier to noise.
• Doors have an aesthetic role in creating an impression to the viewers.
• Doors are also used to control flow of traffic.
• Doors control climate, provide light and ventilation, sounds, smells, breezes, warmth and cold to travel in and out of home and between rooms and expand visibility
• Doors are generally used to separate interior spaces (rooms, closets, etc.) for privacy, convenience, security, and safety reasons.
• Doors influence furniture arrangement, add decoration, emphasize the overall design of building.
• used to control flow of traffic, secure passages into a building from the exterior for reasons of safety.
• control climate,, provide light and ventilation, allow view, sounds, smells, breezes, warmth and cold to travel in and out of home and between rooms and expand visibility
• used to separate interior spaces (rooms, closets, etc.) for privacy, convenience, security, and safety reasons.
• influence furniture arrangement, add decoration, emphasize the overall design of building.

Location of door:

• The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum since larger number of doors cause obstruction, and consume more area in circulation.
• The location of a door should meet functional requirements of a room. It should not be located in the centre of the length of a wall.
• A door should preferably be located near the corner of a room-nearly 20 cm away from the corner.
• If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be located in opposite walls, facing each other, so as to provide good ventilation and free-air circulation in the rooms.
• A number of other factors that influence the location of doors are circulation path, furniture arrangement, view and privacy and also light, heat and cold control.

Doorway components

Basically, a door consists of two parts: (i) door frame, and (ii) door shutter. The door shutter is held in position by the door frame which in turn is fixed in the opening of the wall by means of hold-fasts etc.

Types of door:

There are two main types of doors namely Paneled and Flush.
Both types are available in exterior and interior grades. Exterior doors are thicker and stronger to withstand weather and intruders.

Paneled doors: Paneled doors have a timber framework consisting of two vertical stiles and two or more horizontal rails. These enclose panels made of plywood, timber or glass.

Flush doors consist of a light, timber frame faced with sheet material. The cheapest doors have a honeycomb cardboard core (hollow core) and hardboard faces. Slightly more expensive doors are faced with plywood.

A French door is also called as a French window or glass door. It is a door that has multiple windows (“lights”) set into it with glass panes for the full length of the door.

French doors are often used in residences to open out onto a balcony or patio. They have wooden frames and may consist of one sheet of plate glass or may have multiple lights on each door.

Glazed Doors

Glazed doors are made from wooden stiles and rails having glass panels according to the requirement. These doors are provided in shops, departmental stores, hotels and commercial establishments etc. to attract customers. Glazed doors offer a sense of security as a barrier. In official and residential buildings, glazed doors prevent unwanted intrusions and provide architectural beauty between formal and informal areas.

Folding doors

Folding doors (or accordion doors) have a multiple panels which fold upon one another. It can fold too many layers. We can see this type of doors in new building. These doors are often used to cover a broad space where a straight door’s swing would be bulky or controlled. This door opens by folding back in sections. 

Louvered doors (venetian doors)

A louvered door has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called slats or louvers) which permit open ventilation while preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for wardrobes and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form window shutters.

WIRE-GAUGED DOORS

These types of doors are provided to check the entry of flies, mosquitoes, insects etc. Wire Mesh is provided in the panels, and therefore they permit free passage of air. Such doors are commonly used for refreshment rooms, hotels, cupboards contain­ing food and eatables, and sweet shops etc. 

REVOLVING DOORS

Such doors are provided only in public buildings, such as libraries, museums, and banks etc. where there are constant visi­tors. Such a door provides en­trance to one and exit to the other person simultaneously, and closes automatically when not in use. This door is also suitable for air-conditioned buildings or for buildings situ­ated at a place where strong breeze blow throughout the year, since the door is so assembled that it excludes the wind drought.

SLIDING DOORS

In such a door, the shutter slides on the sides with the help of runners and guide rails. The door may have one sliding shutter, two shutters or even three shut­ters, depending upon the size of the opening and the space available on sides for sliding.

SWING DOORS

A Swing door has its leaf attached to the door frame by means of special double action spring hinge, so that the shutter can move both inward and outward as de­sired. Generally, such doors have single leaf, but two leafs can also be provided. 

COLLAPSIBLE STEEL DOORS

Such doors are used in godowns, workshops, sheds, public buildings etc., for providing increased safety and protection to property. The door neither requires hinges for opening and closing, nor any frame for hanging them. It acts like a steel curtain which can be opened or closed by horizontal push. Such a door is even provided in residential buildings where opening is large.

Factors to consider when buying doors

Decision with regard to choice of door for a particular location is influenced by various factors and these needs sufficient attention while purchase and installation.

• Price/Cost
• Type of materials
• Type of finish
• Type of door design
• External temperature
• Climate
• Interior theme
• Location – interior/exterior
• Residential/ commercial
• Amount of light flow
• Installation
• Safety
• Warranty
• Durability
• Cost of maintenance

WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS

A window is comprised of two parts: Window frame, and  Sashes or shutter frame. Window frames are fixed to the opening in ‘the wall, by means of suitable hold fasts. The sashes or shutter frames are fixed to the window frames by means of suitable hinges. The window frame has sill at the bottom, unlike doors.

The function of the window is to admit light and air to the room and to give a view to the outside. It should also provide insulation against heat loss and, in some cases, against sound.

The selection of size, shape, location and number of windows in a room depends upon the following factors

1. Size of the room
2. Location of the room
3. Utility of the room
4. Direction of the wall
5. Direction of wind
6. Climatic conditions such as humidity, temperature etc.
7. Requirements of exterior view

TYPES OF WINDOWS

Windows are classified as follows, based on the nature of operational movements of shutters, materials used for construction, manner of fixing and their location.

1. Fixed Windows
2. Pivoted windows
3. Double hung windows
4. Sliding windows
5. Casement windows
6. Sash windows
7. Louvered windows
8. Metal windows
9. Bay windows
10. Clerestorey windows
11. Corner windows
12. Dormer windows
13. Cable windows
14. Lantern windows
15. Skylights
16. Ventilators
17. Combined windows and ventilators

1. FIXED WINDOWS

These windows are pro­vided for the sole purpose of admitting light and/or provid­ing vision in the room. The window consists of a window frame to which shutters are fixed. No rebates are provided to the frame. The shutters are fully glazed.

2. PIVOTED WINDOWS

In these windows, the shutters are allowed to swing round pivots fixed to the win­dow frame. The window frame has no rebates. The frame of the window shutter is simi­lar to that of an encasement window. The shutter can swing or rotate either hori­zontally, or vertically.

3. DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW

This type of win­dow consists of a frame and a pair of shutters, arranged one above the other, which can slide ver­tically within the grooves provided in the window frame. By the provision of such sliding the win­dows can be cleaned ef­fectively and at the same time ventilation can be controlled effectively since the windows can be opened at the shutters open to the required level. The upper sash moves in the downward direction, thus opening at the top, while the lower sash moves in the upward direction thus opening at the bottom. Special frame, called boxed frame or cased frame is provided, consisting of two vertical members (spaced apart to provide the groove) a head and a sill. Small wooden piece (parting strip) is provided in the groove of the frame, to keep the weights apart. Small parting bead is provided to separate the two shutters when they are opposite to each other.

4. SLIDING WINDOWS

These windows are similar to sliding doors. The shutters move either horizontally or vertically on small roller bearings. Suitable openings or grooves are left in the frame or walls to accommodate the shutters when they are slided to open the window. Such windows are provided in trains, buses and shops and bank counters.

5. CASEMENT WINDOWS

The shutters of the window open like shutters of the doors. The window has a frame which is rebated to receive the shutters. The shutters consist of styles, top rails, bottom rails, and intermediate rails, thus dividing it into panels. The panels may either be glazed, or unglazed, or partly glazed and partly unglazed.

6. SASH OR GLAZED WINDOWS

A sash window is a type of casement window in which the panels are fully glazed. The frame of shutter consists of two vertical styles, top rail and bottom rail. The space between the top and bottom rails is divided into small panels by means of small timber members placed horizontally and vertically. These timber members, known as sash bars or glazing bars are re­bated to receive glass panels. Glass-panes are fixed to these sash bars either by means of putty or by timber beads commonly known as glazing beads se­cured to the sash bars by means of nails. If the window opening is wide, the window frame may have central ver­tical member known as mullion. Similarly, if the height of window opening is more (or if a ventilator is combined with the window) the window frame may have horizontal member called transom.

7. LOUVERED WINDOWS

These are similar to louvered doors. Such win­dows are provided for the sole aim of ventilation, and they do not permit any outside vision. The shutter consists of top and bottom rails, and two styles which are grooved to receive the louvers. The louvers are generally fixed. The economical an­gle of inclination of the louvers is 45°. The louvers slope downward to the outside to run-off the” rain water.

Sometimes Venetian shutters are provided in which the louvers can open or close. The louvers are made of slats of wood or aluminium, pivoted at both ends in the frame, and in addition each blade is connected by a small hinge to a vertical batten. When the batten is pulled up or down, the gap be­tween the blades are opened or closed.

Sometimes, the lou­vers can be raised and lowered by means of op­erating devices, such as a mechanical tilting device and a cord lock with the help of which simultaneous adjustment of slates and bottom rails can be done at any desired angle and height.

8. METAL WINDOWS

Metal windows, made of mild steel are becoming increasingly popular in private as well as public buildings, because of their strength and less cost. However, windows made of other metals, such as aluminium, bronze, stainless steel etc. are also used for those buildings where high degree of elegance finishing etc. is required. Aluminium windows are rust-proof, durable and require no maintenance and painting; they are therefore increasingly becoming popular for domestic buildings.

9a. BAY WINDOWS

Bay windows project outside the external wall of the room. This projec­tion may be triangular, cir­cular, rectangular or po­lygonal in plan. Such a window, shown in is provided to get an increased area of open­ing for admitting greater light and air. They also provide extra space in the room, and improve the overall appearance of the building.

9b. Bow window is a variation of the bay window. Both types of window installations project outward from the flat surface of a wall, providing extra space and light. The bow window is so named because it has a slightly curved shape, instead of the more angled shape of the bay window, and it looks like the curve of a drawn bow. Typically three to six panels of glass are used, usually more panels with less width when the glass is not curved.

10. CLERE-STOREY WINDOW

These windows are provided in a room which has greater ceiling height than the surrounding rooms, or when a lean-to-roof of low height is there adjacent to the room. It is generally provided near the top of the main roof, and they open above the lean-to-roof, or roof slab of adjoining rooms. The window shutter is made to swing on two horizontal shutters provided on side styles. It can be opened or closed by means of two cords, one attached to the top rail and other to the bottom rail of the shutter. The shutter swings in such a way that upper part opens inside the room and the lower part opens outside, to exclude rain water. Such a window increases the appearance of the building. It is essential to provide a rain-shed or chhajah over the window.

11. CORNER WINDOWS

This is a special type of window which is provided in the corner of a room. This window has two faces in two perpendicular directions. Due to this, light and air is admitted from two directions. Such a window very much improves the elevation of the building. However, special lintel has to be cast over the window-opening.

12. DORMER WINDOWS

A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof. Such a window provides ventilation and lighting to the enclosed space below the roof, and at the same time, very much improve the appearance of the building.

13. GABLE WINDOWS

It is a vertical window provided in the gable end of a pitched roof.

14. LANTERN WINDOWS

Such windows are provided over the flat roofs, to provide more light, and air to the inner apartments/rooms of a building. The windows project above the roof level. They may be of several shapes in plan. They admit light either through vertical faces or inclined faces. The roof slab has an appropriate opening below the window.

15. A SKY LIGHT

A sky light is provided on a sloping roof, to admit light. The window projects above the top sloping surface. They run parallel to the sloping surface. The common rafters are suitably trimmed and the sky light is erected on a curb frame. The opening so made is properly treated by lead flashing to make the roof, surrounding the opening, water-proof.                                                           

VENTILATORS

Ventilators are small windows, fixed at a greater height than the window, generally about 30 to 50 cm below roof level. The ventilator has a frame and a shutter, generally glazed, which is horizontally pivoted. The shutter can be opened or closed by means of two cords, one attached to the top rail and other to the bottom rail of the shutter. The top edge of the shutter opens inside and bottom edge opens outside, so that rain water is excluded.

Simple roof level ventilators, can be an effective way of achieving the objective of ventilation such as

• Low maintenance
• Easy control interface
• Reduces the ‘carbon footprint’
• Saves money on energy consumption
• Reduces forms of smells, musty odors, conditions fostering mold, excess humidity, tobacco smoke, cooking odors and out-gassing from chemicals, carpets, and construction materials.

Types of Ventilators

1. Natural ventilators: Ventilator means an opening in the external wall, floor or roof of a building, room or area, designed to allow air movement into or out of the building, room or area by natural means which can be held open.
2. Mechanical ventilators: eg: A quiet fan, airtight ductwork, and a leak-free vent combine to clear moisture from the kitchen and bathroom of the house.

Reference:

1. Nissen  L , Faulkner R and Faulkner S (1994) Inside Today’s Home (Sixth Edition),  Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning – UK Pp 501 – 504
2. Sudhir Diwan (1999) A Manual of Interior Design)  Volume 2 Interior Affairs 4 Maison Belvedere, 107 Queens, Bombay
3. Lynn M.Jones and Phyllis S.Allen, Beginnings of Interior Environments,2009, Pearson prentice Hall USA, Pg.No. 156-157.
4. Lorrie Mack, Calm working spaces, 2000, Marshall editions Ltd., London, Pg.No.166-167.
5. J.Blake, How to solve your interior design problems,1986, Quarto publishing limited. Pg.no.111,113.
6. S.N.Chaudari, Interior Design, 2006, Aavishkar Publishers, India, Pg.No. 63-65.
7. William P.Spence, Windows and skylights,2001, Published by sterling publishing company, Australia, Pg.No. 14-46.

Assignment:

1. Find out the other types of specialty doors used in the buildings along with the pictures.
2. Prepare an e-scrap book on types of windows and ventilators constructed in residential and commercial buildings.

WINDOWS – FUNCTIONAL AND DECORATIVE TREATMENTS 

Significance of window Treatments

Window is an important wall element in a building as they let in light, air flow, view and add elegance to the structure. Treatments are functional covering to windows to protect privacy, insulate heat and cold, and filter light and enhancing their aesthetic qualities. They blend the exterior and interior in a harmonious manner. Window treatments are more than a decorating decision; they are for solving many practical problems.

There is great need to control privacy and safety, the amount and kind of light that enters, and the transmission of heat and cold and these call for treatments with curtains, draperies, blinds, or shades for the sake of utility.

Some windows require an additional consideration based on the window’s architecture. Designs that are less performing in the environment can be changed by remodeling. When the window itself detracts from rather than adds to the space — whether it’s squat, too thin, devoid of appealing wood trim, or awkwardly positioned — the window dressing can camouflage the architectural defects, making the window a more visually appealing feature.

From the point of view of economy, efficient window treatment can reduce heating and cooling bills, keeping in mind that whatever is put on the window should be durable, resistant to the ravages of sun, moisture, and insects, and easily maintained.

Types of Window treatments

Windows can be aesthetically transformed, by adding simple decorating touches to exterior and interior. These decorations can also help to control energy costs and provide different types of home security as well. Depending on the overall budget and desired end result, there are many options on how to decorate windows through both interior and exterior treatments.

• Exterior treatments include standard awnings, shutters, louvers, screens and plants
• Indoor window treatments include soft and hard window treatments like blinds, curtains, drapes, valance, swags, cornice, shades and window films etc.

Treatments could be to solve a single problem or tackle multiple issues. Selection of light filtering blinds as window treatments may include a valance or window topper to soften the lines or to add color. Also a window may be treated with more than one layer of aesthetic treatment to create a dramatic effect: More layers of treatments may include a room-darkening shade to filter light at certain times of day, with sheers to let light in at other times. Topping this arrangement might be with drapes made from luxurious fabric.

EXTERIOR TREATMENTS

Exterior window treatments have one overriding advantage: they provide the most affective climate control without interfering with furniture or taking wall space within the room. Exterior treatments could effectively control undesired elements surrounding the building in a more aesthetic way.

Awnings:.Awnings made of weather- resistant fabrics can be adjusted as the weather varies to protect windows from sun, rain, and dirt while casting a soft, pleasant light inside. They are available in many designs and colours, which must be selected with the knowledge that they are subject to fading, soiling, and wind damage. However, awnings can reduce solar heat gain as much as 65-75percent.metal awnings, usually aluminum, can either be stationary or roll up. They are higher in initial cost than fabric types but pay for themselves with a longer life. The major design problem with awnings is making them look like integral parts of the structure rather than afterthoughts.

Shutters: True shutters temper light, heat and cold. They also serve to secure houses against marauders or windows against violent storms. More common are the dummy shutters employed to make small windows look larger on Colonial- style houses.

Bermuda Shutters: Exterior shutters perform several practical purposes, such as protecting a room from sunlight, rain and wind. The Bermuda style covers a single window with one shutter panel. The wooden louvered shutter operates with a hinge at the top. An arm or arms serve to support the bottom of the shutter, propping it into an open position.

Cutouts and Projecting Elements: Over hanging roofs and trellises are popular exterior shading devices. In addition, they can shelter outdoor living areas, visually relate a house to its site, and also control the quantity and quality of light entering windows. Cutouts are semi-open spaces, missing a wall or two or perhaps a roof, that nevertheless seem an integral part of the structure

Plants: Plants paced in front of window filter, but do not shut out, light and also some degree of privacy. A screen of live plants in a green house window may nearly block visual communication in and out. Plants are more a soft than hard kind of window treatments.

Bare Insulated windows: When window design itself or the outward view is truly striking, any added “treatment” becomes superfluous and could even detract from the effect. Sometimes clients and designers make a conscious choice between privacy and openness and opt for the latter. Any curtaining would destroy the dramatic effect. In these circumstances, considerations should be given to double and triple paned windows to control heat loss/ gain.

Grilles and Fences : Masonry, wood, plastic or metal grilles and fences placed close to windows are some feet away- control privacy, sun, and wind in any degree desired, depending on their design and location. They also add security against invaders when attached to window frames.

Metal Roll-Down Shutters offer protection from light, sound, intruders and the weather. Shutters or shades of this variety are commonly found on many European apartments and homes. Metal shutters are not as aesthetically pleasing as other types of exterior window treatment options, although new colors and designs make them an increasingly attractive choice for homeowners. Metal roll-down shutters, typically equipped with manual cranks, can be fitted with an electric motor for ease of operation. Most metal shutters are constructed of heavy-duty aluminum or lightweight steel.

Solar Shades: Exterior solar shades provide a solution for problems associated with the harsh effects of the sun. Solar shade fabric consists of a tightly woven vinyl-coated polyester yarn that preserves the view to the outside and withstands years of exposure to the elements. This exterior window treatment option will benefit homes in any region where heat and sun are an issue. Exterior solar shades reduce interior temperatures, glare and fabric fade. Motorized solar shades operate from a  Remote transmitter or wireless wall switch and come in a wide variety of colors to coordinate with any paint or exterior finish.

Louvers: Ventilating panels of wood, metal, or plastic can be especially effective as sunshades and for weather protection. Normally used over windows, they can take the place of glass completely in very temperate climates. If security is a concern, louvers are not an effective choice because the narrow slats are easy to remove from the exterior of the structure.

HARD TREATMENTS FOR INTERIORS

Hard window treatments include may other kinds of controls such as shades, blinds, screens, and shutters. These treatments can move sideways or up and down, the latter having the definite advantage of being completely out of the way when not wanted. They are more rigid and architectural by nature, and may be better for certain situations than the traditional “soft” window treatments.

Shades:

They may be mounted at either the top or bottom of the window, unwinding either downward or upward. Shades reduce light and give privacy in direct relationship to their thickness and translucency or opaqueness. They may be constructed of vinyl are fabric and may be reflective to reduce heat gain. A fabric used elsewhere in the room can be laminated into a plain shade to give unity and individually. Roller shades are expensive.

Roman and Austrian shades and also balloon are attached to tapes that, respectively, pleat or shirr the fabric when drawn by cords similar to those used for blinds. Roman shades pleat indefinite horizontal lines as they are raised. They may unfold flat or in cascading loops, depending upon construction techniques. Austrian shades fall in length wise bands of soft, scalloped, horizontally draped folds.

Bamboo or Match Stick and Woven- Wood shades function much like those made of fabric, either rolling or folding as they are raised. They differ in that they usually let more light through, give a better view of the outside, and have pleasantly natural textures and colours. They have a linear quality with horizontal stripes of wood or split bamboo held in place with natural or coloured cord.

Pleated shades, made of a polyester web or mesh material, filter or block sunlight while remaining visually unobtrusive they are generally very narrow  accordion- pleated shades and or excellent for tempering strong sunlight and excess and heat in green houses and sunrooms, especially when they have an aluminum backing ( which also increases privacy).

Honeycomb pleated shades are paired, creating an insulating air pocket between them the outer side is white to reflect heat and unify exterior appearance, but the  inside may be any colour. Pleated shades take up very little space when raised; when lowered, the pleats open but retain a slight fold, giving them a three- dimensional effect.

Thermal Window Blind Panels: UPVC windows and Thermal window treatments can reduce heating bills in the winter and save on air conditioning costs in the summer. Installing thermal curtains, insulated drapes and window quilts is an easy, attractive way to save energy and save money on heating and cooling your home. Heat loss through windows and doors can account for up to 50 percent of a home’s heating and cooling energy costs. Especially with older, single pane windows, installing thermal curtains, shades or window quilts can save money on heating bill. Wide vertical blinds made of 100 percent cotton sailcloth backed with insulating, cotton-flocked, acrylic-foam add a modern touch to a room with a large patio door as well as standard-sized windows.

The drawbacks of shades include the fact that, when pulled down, most cut out the light from the top of the window first- and that is the best light, offering the most privacy. Some shades roll from the bottom up, but these may interfere with the operation of the window. Shades also block the breeze may whip around noisily.

Blinds: Colonial homes used Venation blinds made of wood, but they are available in metal and plastics as well. Their special advantages include almost complete light and air control- directed straight into the room, down toward the floor, or up toward the ceiling- as well as complete disappearance behind a valance or other treatment, if desired. Blinds are durable and not expensive, unless made of wood. They crate pleasing horizontal lines. Venation Blinds have 2- inch slats held with fabric tape. Miniblinds are constructed with narrow slats (1inch in width), held by thin cords, causing minimal interference with the view. Micro Blinds have even narrower slats, only ½ inch wide. Blinds can have different colours on each side of the slats; some are available with a heat- reflective surface on one side. They do, however, collect dust and dirt and are somewhat difficult to clean. They may also be awkward to raise and lowers, depending upon window size and height, the presence of additional window coverings, and furniture placement

Vertical Blinds of metal, wood, PVC, or fabric can be shaped easily to fit and unify and odd-size openings and can hold inserts of fabrics or wall papers that coordinate with other materials in the room. Their louvers control light from side to side, rather than from up or down, and emphasizes the height of the windows and walls.  Most vertical blinds afford a view directly in front of but not at the ends of a long window area. Newer materials are perforated for transparent effects. The vertical surfaces collect less dust than do horizontal blinds. Vertical blinds may hang loosely from the top like a drapery, slide in tracks, or be joined by a chain at the bottom. They afford complete privacy when closed and can be energy efficient. A disadvantage is that they rather easily damaged, especially by children.

Grilles, Screens and Panels: Under certain circumstances- when windows are not well designed, when there is no view, or when privacy is necessary- grilles or screens of wood or other materials pierced with various patterns deserve consideration. With a translucent backing added, they are called shoji by the Japanese and they mask windows but allow diffused light to enter. Screens may slide, fold, or be stationary. Stained, etched, beveled, and leaded glass panels may also be hung in place of standard window glass or in front of it. They add colour, sparkle, and varying degrees of privacy. Wood or vinyl lattice screens are used by contemporary designers on both the interior and exterior of windows.

Shutters: They consist of fixed or movable panels or wood slats or louvers on a frame work hinged to a window frame or wall. Most louvers or an inch wide, but plantation shutters have at least 2 inch shutters. An architectural wall treatment, shutters serve as a unified part of a wall. Because they are usually in hinged sections, shutters open and close off the windows as desired, providing flexible amounts of privacy and light control. Shutters collect dust, but the wood (pine or oak, normally) is usually stained or painted to seal against soil. Although their initial cost is rather high, they last almost indefinitely. Shutters are actually less expensive than fabric treatments.

Window Tinting Films: These are attached directly onto glass to turn an unwanted view or plain window into an elegant focal point that enhances home or office decor. Static-cling decorative film can be used on any smooth, non-porous surface. These improves privacy and security, diffuses glare and softens harsh sun while allowing natural light to enter and filters 95% of UV rays to protect carpets and furnishings from fading. Easy to clean, removable, and reusable and can be installed in minutes

Specialty glass encompasses window treatments such as stained glass, beveled glass, glass blocks, frosted glass, and liquid crystal technology. Stained glass is particularly useful for a window that has an undesirable view or for a window that is not likely to be opened on a regular basis. Custom stained glass windows can be permanently installed or a framed piece can be hung on top of an existing window. Liquid crystal technology allows a window to change from clear to opaque with the flip of a switch. These pricey modern marvels use liquid crystal droplets and electricity to achieve this effect.

Soft window treatments: These are done mainly with the fabric in different styles.          

• In essence they are the core distinctive finish to cover your windows with custom drapery , curtains or shades, side panels with or without a top treatments, valances, cornices, or grace them with the likes of shutters and blinds
• Windows are treated with amaterial placed on, in, around, or over a window to protect privacy, insulate heat and cold, and filter light; and while many people consider window treatments more aesthetic, they too can be functional.
• Window treatments are the least expensive way to transform a room.
• Window treatments can create an illusion. For instance, by installing draperies above the window frame, the window will appear taller and the ceiling higher. To make a small window look larger, the window treatment should be installed outside the frame of the window, thus exposing the entire window.
• Dressing a window gives a room a warm appeal, absorbs sound, provides privacy, acts as insulation, cuts down on UV rays that fade carpets, fabrics and furniture. Shades, blinds, and shutters control the sunlight and artificial light to eliminate glare from computer monitors and television screens
• Good window treatments should be designed to suit not only the windows but they should blend with the rest of the décor of the room and create a sense of interweaved design. A badly chosen and placed window treatment could stand out like an eye sore in an otherwise attractive room.
• Window treatments should facilitate looking out of the window from within the room and prevent or hamper looking inside the room. This can be achieved by the proper shades, coverings and shutters. While ventilation is unaffected the view from the window is enhanced while privacy is maintained. Choosing the right blinds for the purpose will go a long way in decorating the inside of the house while maintaining privacy as well. The kind of blinds chosen for privacy will depend on the kind of house and where the window is facing.

Advantages of Soft Window Treatments:

• In addition to controlling privacy, light, and heat, curtains and draperies soak up noise in proportion to the area they cover, the thickness of the fabric, and the depth of the folds.
• Curtains and draperies can change the apparent size, shape and character of a room or conceal architectural awkwardness. Small rooms look larger if curtains and draperies blend with and extend the length of the walls; low rooms look higher if draperies go from ceiling to floor. Gloomy rooms seem brighter when cheerful colours are invigorating patterns are used on windows. Wall chopped up with the windows or jogs can be unified by generous glass curtains and draperies, and some eyesores can be completely concealed.
• Almost any degree of attention can be directed toward windows by the fabrics selected and the way they are hung. Unpatterned materials similar to the wall colour, acting as inconspicuous transitions between opaque walls and clear glass, encourage us to look through windows. Moderate colour contrasts patterns direct attention toward windows. Bold or unusual colours and designs usually cause us to look at the draperies rather than the windows.
• Light and Privacy Control are important elements to consider when choosing window treatments.

Sheer soft window treatments are very popular. Sheers are used to accent an open, airy feeling found in most of today’s newer home designs. They can be layered and combined with other printed and/or plain sheers to create a fresh look. Sheers provide the maximum amount of light to enter when the curtains are drawn, but the least amount of privacy. In order to get the best of both worlds—privacy and maximum sunlight— combine sheers with a hard window treatment such as a roller blind. Sheers come in cotton, silk, lace, and bronze, pewter and gold metallic.

Semi-sheer soft window treatments diffuse light for a little privacy. It is important to remember that during the day people will not be able to see in the room, but at night, when the interior lights are on, they will. Semi-sheer window treatments include heavy and layered sheer fabrics with designs and lace

Semi-opaque window treatments provide partial blockage of light when the curtains are closed. At night you can only see shadows on the inside from the outside. Semi-opaque products are the most widely available and include most drapery fabric and a few hard window treatments.

Types of Soft Treatments

Curtains are usually of lightweight, unlined fabric that filters and diffuse light. Curtains are used either alone or under drapery, hung next to the glass.

• Glass curtains, often called sheers, are of thin or semisheer fabrics and hang closet to the glass.
• Sash curtains are a type of glass curtain hung on the window sash. They can be stretched taut between rods at the top and bottom of window sashes or hung in loose folds. They are often used on doors that contain windows.
• Cafe Curtains are typically pleated, and mounted to either the inside or outside of a window frame. Because cafe curtains attach to the frame at both the top and bottom, they are an excellent choice for adding privacy.
• Tab-top Curtains are flat curtain panels that hang from a decorative rod by tabs (which can be of varying lengths). Tab-top curtains tend to be more casual than other types of curtains and are often mounted outside the window frame.
• Draw curtains usually of translucent or light weight opaque fabrics, are mounted on traverse rods which provide pulley mechanism that allows the curtain to be drawn or pulled open and closed. In the past, draw curtains were hung between glass curtains and draperies.
• Cottage curtains, also called Dutch curtains, are a combination of a sash curtain and a second curtain for the upper part of the window. For upper curtain, measure from bottom of top row to four to six inches below sash curtain, or more where the curtain is to tie back.
• Casement curtains are for windows that open in and out. Two rods are used, top and bottom, measurements taken from bottom of top rod to top of bottom rod. Casing and heading are usually used top and bottom. Curtains are made of open-weave fabric usually more opaque than a sheer or a glass curtain. They may be used alone or under drapery and may also be mounted on traverse rods.
• Tie backs: The easiest tie back to make is a band about 4 x 12 inches, folded in half lengthwise, outside together, and stitched at the short ends. For tie back with ruffle on two or three sides, cut out two pieces for the band, turn in raw edges all around and insert ruffle between turned edges.
• Tab tops are very popular, and they highlight the decorative hardware used to hang them. Tab top curtains are available in valances, café style, and drapes and can be used in every room of the house.
• Tiers, also called café curtains, come in several different styles. They are short in length and are often used in kitchens and baths. Tiers cover the lower half of the window using a tension rod and can be beautifully combined with a swag, valance or top tier.
• Full-length rod-pocket or pole-top panels are a mainstay in soft treatments and can be constructed with different sized pockets to accommodate varying rod styles. They can hang straight or be tied back using fabric ties or decorative hardware, depending upon the look and function you want.
• Swags and Scarves Swags and scarves add a striking accent to curtains. Layering a printed swag or scarf over coordinating solid curtains will bring all of the colors of your room together to create a romantic focal point. If privacy is not an issue, swags and scarves can be hung alone on a rod or through a sconce for a distinctive look.
• Valance hangs across the top of a window, usually covering a third of the window glass. Often used to hide drapery hardware, it can be draped, gathered, or pleated. Valances can be used with or without a curtain underneath

Draperies Drapery is the correct term; drape refers to the way of fabric hangs or the act of draping or arranging it in flowing lines. Generally, though, draperies are thought of as heavy, opaque fabrics that can be drawn or that stand idly at the sides of the windows purely for decoration. These are more tailored and have pleated, smocked, or gathered headings, which can either completely cover the window or can be pulled back to the sides, and can be lined or unlined. They are attached to traversing rods with special pin hooks.

Types of Draperies

• Draw Draperies are any window treatment designed for use with a traverse rod, creating a window covering that can be drawn to open or close, either from both sides to the center (center draw) or from one side to the other (one-way draw).
• Hand-Drawn Draperies are drapery treatments that are pulled open or closed by hand or with a baton.
• Over draperies is the topmost drapery in a double or combination drapery treatment.
• Pinch Pleated Draperies are a popular treatment for windows because draperies open to let light in and close for privacy. The pleats are spaced at intervals to control the fullness of the drapery. The more fabric that is pleated into the drapery panels, the fuller the draperies become.
• Cornices are rigid horizontal bands several inches deep placed at the window top (or the ceiling) to conceal curtain tops and the rods from which they hang. Constructed of wood, they are somewhat architectural in feeling and relate window treatments to walls and ceiling. Cornices are often used as apart of an energy- efficient window treatment because they are closed at the top, stopping the air flow over the top of the treatment. Upholstered cornices are padded and covered with fabric.
• Lambrequins or cantonnieres: are similar to cornices but, in addition to the horizontal member across the window top, they have rigid vertical members on either side of the window. They are very effective in preventing heat loss around windows when used with draperies but they can also be used without curtains or draperies. Lambrequins have the potential of unifying windows, sometimes altering apparent size, shape, location when used in conjunction with draperies.
• Valances: These are simply shorter curtains, draperies, or soft shades, usually about a

foot long that hang over the top edge of curtains are made of fabric draped across a drapery, covering a rod or shaped form at the tops of the windows. They are allied more closely with the drapery than with the wall and are decorative in nature. Valances are open at the top and do not serve the energy conservation function of cornices. Different styles of valances are Austrian, pouf, shirred, tapped, ruffled or pleated may help establish the character of various historical periods during which they were popular.

 Swags: Swags, festoons and cascades are large pieces of fabric that are hung either above or on top of the curtains themselves. They are usually attached to a mounting board, although a more informal look is to drape swag over a wooden or decorative pole, or pulled through a decorative sconce. These valance treatments are draped into soft graceful folds that take on the shape of a half circle. Jabots are pleated and used as a frame on each side of a row of Swags. Jabots should be 1/3, 2/3 or the full length of the window frame. Flags are double sided Jabots used in the center of a swag treatment or in corners when swags are installed in a bay window. Flags are usually 5″ to 7″ longer than swags. Cascades are soft unstructured Jabots that consist of fabric draped lengthwise in a zigzag fashion, usually ending in a point. Finished length and fabric requirements are the same as for Jabots. Throw Swags are made up of fabric draped over a wood pole or café rod. Other types are constructed in several sections, but look like one continuous piece.

• Portieres: are curtains or draperies hung in open doorways or arches between interior spaces, often tied back or let down for privacy or insulation. They were frequently used in Victorian era.

Materials for Soft treatments:

Fabric:

The choice in Fabric ranges from filmy nets, transparent gauzes, scrim, and muslin through soft silk and cotton fabrics, linens and coarse canvas weaves, brocades, damask, and tapestry, and velvets; in color and design from one unbroken neutral tone to the most complex variation of hues and patterns; in price from a few cents to many dollars a yard. Any fabric may be used, provided it is suitable. Effects in design, color, texture, and pattern that harmonize with the room and its furnishings are the distinguishing characteristics of the most tasteful selections of hangings, rather than rich and costly materials.

Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty wash-able material is appropriate for a bedroom. Bright or gaily-figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer and occupied for only short periods, su.ch as a dining-room or a porch sitting-room. Patterns and colors that are entertaining in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For rooms in constant use or for rooms that should be reposeful in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study, near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential.

HARDWARE AND ACCESSORIES

Hardware comes in many assorted styles, colours and finishes to coordinate with your theme. There is specific hardware for the type of window treatment you choose. When combining window treatments purchase the correct hardware for the two to work together. For example, combining vertical blinds and draperies will require drapery brackets that project far enough over the blind so both are operational.

Drapery hardware has come to the forefront of window dressing. The decorative pole, a standard curtain rod, rod finials, rings, and decorative tiebacks that can be used to hold back your drapes or to hang valances or panels from their loops are made of stainless steel, wood, brass, iron, cast aluminum, genuine wrought iron, polished brass, antique brass, brushed nickel or copper, and chrome rods with metal, iron, or clear glass and many other finishes.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS  FOR SOFT WINDOW TREATMENT

• Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty washable material is appropriate for a bedroom.
• Bright or gaily-figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer and occupied for only short periods, such as a dining-room or a sitting-room.
• Patterns and colors that are entertaining in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For rooms in constant use, or for rooms that should be reposeful in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study, near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential
• The lighting of the room is an important consideration in selection of window draperies, If the room is poorly lighted, thin draperies light in value, tending toward yellow – the most luminous color – will be the most effective choice, provided it is consistent with the color of the walls. If the room is too light and sunny, darker and cooler colors and heavier fabrics should be used.
• Curtain material should never be chosen without hanging a large sample in the window of the room in which it is to be used, because the color effect is frequently quite different under transmitted light.
• Material with a black thread is likely to look dull and dingy; a fabric woven with blue and yellow threads becomes green when seen against the light.
• The effect of artificial light on the draperies should also be considered, since colors change surprisingly from their day-time effects.

Methods of Suspending Window curtains and Draperies

A traverse rod is a heavy-duty curtain rod that is commonly used to hang pleated drapes. It has draw cords and a pulley system to easily open and close the drapes.

References:

1. L, Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner, 1994, Inside Today’s Home, Wadsworth, Cengage learning, USA, Pg 518-524
2. Anoop Parikh, Debora Robertson, Thomas Lane, Elizabeth Hilliard, Melanie Paine, 2000, The Ultimate Home Design Sourcebook,  Conran Octopus Publishing G Pgroup
3. Rosemary Riggs. J 1996, Materials and Components of Interior Architecture for Interior Environments. Prentice Hall, Englewood Publications,New Jercy Pp 75-113
4. Wardlock, Creative Interior design, 1994, Eagle Moss publications limited, Spain Pg.No. 231-294.
5. Charles T.Randall, Window fashions, 2006, Randall international,USA, Pg.No.41-100.

Assignment

1. Collect pictures related to types of hard and soft window treatments.
2. Gather information on types of exterior and interior window treatments, materials used and their cost through market survey.

STAIRCASES – TYPES AND MATERIALS

A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to the other. It may be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting different floors of a building. . It provides access between the floors and facilitates movement of occupants from one floor to other. The room or enclosure of the building in which the stair is located is known as staircase. The opening or space occupied by the stair is known as a stairway. In a domestic building the stairs should be centrally located to provide ease of access to all the rooms. In public buildings stairs should be located near the entrance.

CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS

     Stairs can be classified in two broad heads:

1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs

1. STRAIGHT STAIRS

                The straight stairs runs between the two floors. It is used for small houses where there are restrictions in available width. The stair may consist of either one single flight or more than one flight (usually two) with a landing.

2. TURNING STAIRS

Depending upon the degree of turning the turning stairs are classified as

• Quarter turn stairs
•  Half turn stairs( dog –legged and open well stairs)
• Three-quarter turn stairs
• Bifurcated stairs.

Each of the turning stairs are of three types:

• Newel stairs
• Well or open –newel stairs and
• Geometrical stairs.

A newel stair is the one which has a newel at the foot and head of each flight of the stair, and in which newels are conspicuous features. In well or open newel stairs, lateral space is left between the turning flights. Open newel stairs present the best appearance and are strong. Geometrical stairs have the strings and hand rails continuous and are set out in accordance with geometrical principles. They may be circular, spiral, helical, or even elliptical. A newel may be introduced at the bottom and top of such a stair, though it is not an essential part of the construction. Geometrical stairs require care and good deal of skill in their construction. They are not so imposing as the open newel type, and are comparatively weak.

• Quarter turn stairs

           A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the left or to the right, the turn being affected either by introducing a quarter space landing or by providing winders. In the quarter –turn stairs the flight of stairs turns 90 ⁰ at a landing as it rises to connect two different levels. This is also called L stair.

Quarter turn stairs are of two types:

• Newel quarter turn stairs
• Geometrical quarter turn stairs.

Newel quarter turn stairs

     These stairs have the conspicuous newel posts at the beginning and end of each flight. At the quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing or there may be winders.

Geometrical quarter turn stairs

In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the hand rail is continuous with no newel post at the landing. 

HALF TURN STAIRS   

Half turn stairs is the one which has its direction reversed, or changed for

180 ⁰_. Such stairs are quite common. These may be of three types:

• Dog-legged or newel half turn stairs.
• Open newel half turn stairs.
• Geometrical half turn stairs.

a. Dog-legged stairs

                  This name is given because of its appearance in sectional elevation. It comes under the category of newel (or solid newel) stairs in which newel posts are provided at the beginning and end of each flight. These may be of two forms: (i) with half space landing, and (ii) with quarter space landing and winders. Generally the half space landing type, (i.e. without winders) is more common. There is no space between the outer strings of the two flights.

b. Open newel half turn stair

Open well or open newel half turn stair has a space or well between the outer strings. This is the only aspect in which it differs from the dog-legged stair. The additional width is required between the two strings may vary from 15 cm (min) to 100 cm. When the space left is more, a small flight containing two to four steps may be introduced at the turn, between the two quarter space landings. Otherwise, for small width well, a half space landing may be provided.

c. Geometrical half turn stairs

The essential features of this type of stairs are that the stringers and the hand rails are continuous, without any intervening newel post. These may be either with half –space landing or without landing.

THREE QUARTER TURN STAIRS

A three quarter turn stairs has its direction changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one. It may be either be newel type or open newel type. Such type of stair is used when the length of the stair is limited and when the vertical distance between the two floors is quite large.

BIFURCATED STAIRS

This type of stair is commonly used in public buildings at their entrance hall. The stair has a wider flight at the bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the other to the right, at the landing. It may be either of newel type with a newel post as shown in figure 9 below left side or of geometrical type, with continuous stringer and hand rails.

CONTINUOUS STAIRS

Continuous stairs are those which do neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are, therefore , geometrical in shape. Continuous stairs may be of the following types:

• Circular stairs,
• Spiral stairs, and
• Helical stairs.

Circular stairs are shown in figure 5 b and 8 b. Spiral stairs is shown in figure 10 a. Such a stair is usually made either of R.C.C. or metal, and is employed at a location where there are space limitations. These are also used as emergency stairs, and are provided at the back side of a building. All the steps are winders. The stair is, therefore, not comfortable.

A helical stair, shown in figure 10 b. below, looks very fine but its structural design and construction is very complicated. It is made of R.C.C. in which a large portion of steel is required to resist bending, shear and torsion.

STAIRS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS

    The commonly adopted materials in the construction of stairs are wood, stone, steel, cast-iron, plain concrete, or reinforced concrete, brick work or reinforced brick work.

• Reinforced concrete is most suitable for the construction of stairs.
• RCC stairs are durable, strong, pleasing in appearance fire resistance and can be easily rendered, non-slippery.
• These can be designed for greater widths and longer spans.
• In a framed structure of reinforced concrete, R.C.C. stair is the only choice.
• RCC stairs can be pre-cast or cast-in-situ.
• To change the appearance, RCC stairs can be covered with thin slabs of stone, marble tiles or with terrazzo finish.
• Stone stairs are resistant to wear. Stones are found to be durable and fire resisting.
• These are commonly constructed in workshops, warehouses and other public buildings. Their usage in residential buildings is generally restricted to outside stairs.
• Being heavy in weight, stone stairs require stable support to avoid the danger of damage due to settlement of supporting walls.
• Metal stones are usually fabricated from steel and cast iron and their use is generally restricted to factories, godowns etc.
• A metal stair consists of steel stringer to which steel angles are riveted or welded and metal treads are provided over them.
• Timber stairs are easy in construction and maintenance and light in weight.
• Timber stairs are constructed where fire-resistance is not of much importance.
• Landings may be constructed of tongued and grooved boarding on joists. The arrangement for supporting landing boarding differs with type of landing.
• Timber stairs are light in weight and easy to construct, but they have very poor fire resistance. They are used only for small rise residential building. They are unsuitable for high rise residential buildings and for public buildings. Stone stairs are made out of hard and strong stones.

REFERENCES

1.  Punmia, B..C. & Ashok Kumar Jain, & Arun Kumar Jain. (2008). Building Construction . New Delhi: Lakshmi Publications Pvt. Ltd. (Pp-)
2. Rangwala , S. C. (1980). Building Construction. (Pp-).New Delhi: R. C. Patel Charotar Bookstall and Anand.
3. Sushil Kumar. (1988). Building Construction. (Pp-). New Delhi:Standard Publishers Distributors.

Assignment:

1. Find out the differences between moving and fixed stair case and present in the class.
2. Collect pictures of different types of staircases and measure the riser height and tread width of any 5 staircases in your vicinity.

ACCESSORIES – DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE AND CLASSIFICATION

An accessory is a small movable object that completes an interior. Something nonessential but desirable that contributes to an effect or result.  The old saying that “one man’s trash is another man’s treasure” applies aptly to accessories.

There are two types of accessories i.e. functional and decorative accessories.

Functional accessories: A functional accessory serves the purpose and also has aesthetic value. Eg: Pictures, clocks, book ends, candle holders, photo frames, lamps and small vases.

 Decorative accessories: Paintings, sculptures, ceramic vases, dancing dolls and such things.

Guidelines for choosing and using accessories in interiors:

Lamps

• Should be well chosen with good design
• Suitable to the room and purpose
• Elegant lamps can be used in formal rooms. May be simple but the colours and textures should have richness. Fine china, glass, silver and brass lamps are popular.
• Lamps with painted designs are suitable for certain rooms.
• Informal rooms should have less suggestive of luxury. Eg: wood, pottery, copper, cloth, terracotta etc.
• Lamps should harmonize with one another. Same lamps would look monotonous.
• Should provide adequate light.
• Bases, bulbs and shades should be attractive in colour.

Mirrors:

• Mirrors are essential in bedrooms, dressing rooms and in entrances.
• Increase the apparent spaciousness of area – more suitable for small rooms eg: Academy
• Best grades are made of plate glass. Less expensive ones are of window glass.
• Should be well polished to give smooth surface and sparkle.
• Plate glass mirrors are sometimes protected by a copper coating at the back and then treated with shellac and paint.
• Copper backing prevents discoloration and increase the durability.
• Edges of high quality mirrors are ground to angle.
• Some mirrors have designs cut or etched into the glass.
• Some mirrors are given antique finish and used on large walls.
• Modern mirrors are without frames.
• Traditional styles have a frame of wood or metal.
• Should be selected with respect to wall area and furniture.
• Since it is placed over a mantel, couch, chest, table, size and shade should be harmonious.
• Vertical, horizontal, round or oval mirrors should be considered

Clocks:

• Clocks would be the center of interest.
• Must keep time and have faces that are easy to read.
• Traditional clocks are elaborate, tall with elegant note.
• Clocks with chime might disturb at night.
• Modern clocks are simple.

Ashtrays:

• Should be large and convenient to use.
• Should stand firmly without spilling its contents.
• Should be fire proof, not break easily.

Flower arrangement:

• Add warm, livable quality to the room.
• Artificial and natural arrangements can be used.
• Flower colours must blend with colour of the room.
• Arrangement should be consistent with the container.
• Plan a storage area for keeping tools required for flower arrangements.
• Learn to use all sorts of containers. Eg: old sugar bowl, beer glass.
• Use flowers in a thoughtful and imaginative manner.
• Accessories along with flower arrangements are brass, bronze or silver candlesticks, ceramic, brass or polished wood cigarette boxes, ceramic birds of figures, ornamental clocks or candy jars, copper bowls etc.

Miscellaneous accessories: These include

• Book bindings in different colours
• Folding screen – Divide the areas into units.  Different materials used for folding screens are sheer silk, rice paper, glass, plastic, tapestry, leather, plywood etc. can be plain or ornamented.
• Fire place
• Desk: pen holders, memopads, boxes for paper clips, paper weight.
• Serving trays.
• Table settings: china ware, napkins, live plants, fruit basket.
• Waste baskets

Decorative accessories: Decorative accessories though they don’t have any function they give an aesthetic look to the home. These include sculptures, crafts, dolls, figurines, masks, paintings etc.

Sculptures can be large pieces which are free standing and small pieces are used on a shelf or table, on wall, suspended room and ceiling. Crafts are less expensive include pottery, glass bowling, weaving, wood craft, metal work and basketry. Paintings include landscapes, portraits, domestic scenes, wild life, human figures, birds, animals, country scenes, contemporary issues etc.

Flower arrangements:

• They add warm, livable quality to the room.
• Flower colours must blend with colour of the rooms.
• Arrangements should be consistent with containers.
• Learn to use all sorts of containers.
• Use flowers in a thoughtful and imaginative manner.
• Can use artificial or natural arrangements.
• Accessories used with flower arrangements are brass, bronze or silver candlesticks, ceramic, brass or wood cigarette boxes, ceramic birds of figures, candy jars, copper bowls etc.

Pictures/Paintings/Posters:

1. Landscapes: these are suited to living rooms. They can be combined with sea scapes or architectural pictures.
2. Flower prints: They should be matted and simply framed. They may be hung in groups over the sofa, mantel or book shelves in the living room or bed room, dining rooms etc.
3. Domestic scenes: these are suitable for walls in informal living rooms, in halls and in bed rooms.
4. Peasant and folklove scenes: These are good in cottage type houses. They may be combined with domestic scenes.
5. Still life Pictures: These show groupings of books, flowers, musical instruments, bowls, vases etc. used in living room or bed room.
6. Realistic pictures: These depict dramatic scenes in everyday life, best suited to library or den walls.
7. Animal Pictures: These are more appropriate for children’s rooms and dens.
8. Portraits: Family portraits are restricted to use in formal living or dining rooms.

While choosing these pictures, consider the subject matter, content, medium, style, colour, size and framing material.

Natural objects: driftwood or branches of unusual structure, rocks or shells are less expensive with long life express natural beauty and individuality.

Wall hangings and stitchery: Tapestries and embroidered or stitched panels can be treated as paintings and hung where they can be admired. They can be used as pillow, table or bed covers.

Sculpture: There are available in different materials like clay, metal, wood, stone and plastics.

• Consider the material, theme/content, colour, size etc.
• Can be placed in interiors and exteriors of house.
• Large pieces are free standing.
• Small pieces like bust size are placed on a shelf, table, on wall or suspended from ceiling.

Accent furniture as accessories

• Accent furniture’s serves the purpose of both i.e as furniture and also as accessories.
• The accent furniture creates a centre of interest like the Period furniture, finely carved ones and a rocking chair arranged at focal points act as accessories
• The accent furniture may also include small pieces such as a comer stand, cabinet, curio cabinet, coffee table, wall cabinet, table desk, oriental chest, wall screen, room dividers etc. These pieces apart from being beautiful themselves are able to display other art treasures embedded as well.
• The sofa, chairs etc., can accommodate pillows, cushions of varied pattern and color with rich fabrics. Contrasting colors may be used to emphasize. Quilted, patchwork and fur-pillows are a few items to mention which add the desired quality of aesthetics.

Plants and flower arrangements as accessories:

Plants can give a fresh look to any interior. Contemporary architecture and love for environment, greenery is gaining popularity and indoor plants as accessories in interiors have emerged. The informal modem houses benefit a great deal from the color, softness and the graceful shapes of the plants. Bonsai as an art serves as accessories. A single bonsai plant or grouping of these plants provides the focal point in a room.

Plants and flower arrangements are the most luxurious, varied, readily available forms of accessories, which gives vitality and freshness. Plants must be evaluated on three criteria for inclusion in an interior like:

(1) the selected ones needs to be indoor plants only
(2) The form of the plant needs to complement the location and introduce pattern.
(3) The plant actually should extend the designers concept.

Arranging plant material of large scale needs to be complemented with the architectural concept. As visual components, large plants require large amounts of space to display their forms. They should not be crowded into tight spaces or corners. Smaller plants may be grouped together to make an arrangement similarly many varieties with conflicting shapes do not harmonize.

In some interiors or special occasions, large scale arrangements of flowers are needed to meet an estab­lished scale. In other spaces, quite small arrangements or a single flower or leaf may be a solution, like a single flower arrangement on a dining table of 2-4 persons

Handicrafts of India as accessories:

The handicrafts of India are famous all over the world and serve as beautiful, colorful artifacts, as well as accessories. The various handicrafts – whether metal ware, stoneware, wooden, pottery, mats are generally made to serve the need in daily lives which are also artistic with self-expression i.e. traditional wine and water jugs, flower vases, fruit bowls, table tops, gongs, bells, candle stands, ashtrays, and other decorative items. Wall plaques, cigarette boxes, ash-trays, and paper cuttings are often ornamented on beautiful and striking over brown, copper or jet black oxidized background. The handicrafts used in interiors are listed below, though not an exhaustive one.

Metal sculptures may be made in brass, bell metal or oxidized to give a black finish. Both solid and hollow images are cast resembling motifs from nature, sculptures of animals, humans, gods and Godesses are crafted by the local craftsman.

Wood and stone carving is an important traditional industry in India. Images and panels, architectural elements like doors, carved pillars and various decorative pieces are made. The inlay may be of bone, ivory, metals or lacquered. Rosewood and sandalwood are used in South India for the manufacture of decorative items as well as furniture. Workmanship on bamboo is another artwork of the people of Kerala, and Assam.

Pottery- blue and turquoise glazed, terra cotta work has long been popular. 

Basketry is primarily a folk craft. Bamboo, cane, grasses and reeds as well as the leaf of the coconut and date palms are used. Mats, baskets, boxes, trays, toys, dolls, costume jewellery and wall hangings are produced, which blends with any style of arrangement.

The art of fine weaving varied process of painting and dyeing, hand and loom embroidery, Tie and dye techniques are practiced in many states which present an endless variety to choose from Indian Textiles.

References

1. Nissen. L, Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner, 1994, Inside Today’s Home, Wadsworth,Cengage learning, USA, Pg 584-586
2. Blake,j (1986),How to sole you interior Design problems, Hamlyn publishing, England
3. Faulkner, R. and Faulkner, S.(1975),Inside Today’sHome,4^th edition, Holt, Riehart and Winston, New York.
4. Kasu, A. A.(1995),An Introduction to art, Craft, Technique, Science of profession of Interior Design, Iqura Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Bombay

Assignment

1. Collect pictures and classify them under functional and decorative accessories.
2. Visit a local store and collect information on cost and materials used for various accessories.

Answer the following

1. What are accessories? Write about the classification of accessories.
2. Explain the different kinds of accessories.
3. Write about the use of handicrafts as accessories.
4. List the base materials used for accessories. Write a note on care and maintenance of accessories.

QII. Write short notes on:

1. Classification of accessories
2. Accent furniture as accessories.
3. Indoor plants.
4. Bonsai
5. Decorative accessories

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN AND DECORATION IN THE SELECTION/DEVELOPMENT OF ACCESSORIES, AND THEIR PLACEMENT

INTRODUCTION:

Accessories are the elements that add charm, individuality and vitality to a home, which reflect a person’s personality and quality of the home. Accessories have an important role in completing the decoration of the interiors be it home or office. Accessories are usually acquired over the years. Some of the accessories used in the home includes clocks, pictures, wall hangers, show pieces, lamps, mirrors, statues, collection of books, curios, murals, handicrafts, artifacts, earthenware, ceramic pots, flower arrangements and indoor plants.

So, accessories can be defined as the objects used to decorate and define the purpose of the room, which also exhibits the taste, individuality and personality of the inmates.

Almost all accessories have some functional as well as aesthetic value, but usually a few articles are chosen which justify their choice by their beauty and mental stimulation. It is better to have a collection of accessories which differ in size, height, texture, color, and pattern.

Definition: An accessory is a small movable object that completes an interior. Something nonessential but desirable that contributes to an effect or result.  The old saying that “one man’s trash is another man’s treasure” applies aptly to accessories. Accessories achieve the following objectives:

Beauty:

            Well organized interiors needs to be beautiful, contemporarily should also express the personality, taste and individuality of the family or the members. To achieve this fundamental objective the accessories do play a major role in not only enhancing the beauty, but also increases the potential productivity of the family members.

Functionalism:

The accessories chosen may be selected for serving dual purposes of beauty as well as functionalism, for example, books kept in an organized way not only add a pleasing sight but also encourages the value for reading and knowledge thereby adding to the intellectual, spiritual as well as the emotional growth of the family members. Similarly, mirrors can also be decorative as well as functional.

Expressiveness

Accessories should express the same idea as the home itself and should harmonize with it. The personality, hobbies, interest of the family member should reflect in the selection and arrangement of accessories, hobbies such as painting, stamp-collection, photography, etc. generally reflect the taste of the family members which further influence in the selection, arrangements and decoration of the home. 

Line and form:

The accessories should conform to the general design feeling of the home. The style i.e be it Period, or modem furnishings, should include accessories having the same general line and form as the furniture. Deviations from the general style are more acceptable in accessories, provided an effective look is achieved. 

Color

Accessories often provide the brilliant color accents in a room. It is good to choose some accessories that have less compelling color than others and also should go with the color scheme. One or two bright colors in a smaller area can also serve as center of emphasis.

Accessories in any room should be at the center of interest. The secondary centres should have less important accessories or may have subdued effect to the main centre of emphasis. For ex: If flower arrangements are the accessories, it needs to be shown the right place and all other accessories must subordinate the same.  

Functions of accessories

• Accessories define the purpose of the room, complete and highlight an aspect of the decoration
• Accessories are aesthetically pleasing, enrich the beauty of the room and bring in a stimulating and restful environment.
• Accessories provide the aesthetic pleasure to the members of the family and to those who visit the home.
• It further reinforces the development of visual tastes and an appreciation of all that is pleasing to the eye.
• A good collection and arrangement of accessories adds status, a personal character and reflects the personality of the individual or that of the family members.
• Accessories can be used to create a focal point or it can be the center of emphasis.
• Accessories may be decorative only or decorative cum functional.

Procurement of Accessories:

1. Personal and family collection which may include glass, china, silver, pottery, stamps, coins, buttons, pens etc.
2. Antique / curio shops
3. Cottage emporia
4. Accessory show rooms
5. Exhibitions
6. Presents/gifts
7. Assemblage

Selection and placement of accessories

Almost all accessories have some functional as well as aesthetic value. The points to be considered while selecting the accessories are expressiveness, line, form, color, appropriateness or theme. If there are too many accessories, a room becomes cluttered and disorderly in appearance. If a family has large collection of accessories, use a few and make changes occasionally to add interest to each room. Some of the general principles to be followed in placement of accessories are as follows.

• Accessories should be placed with suitable background.
• Accessories in a room should show variation, for it would be monotonous if they are all made of the same type of material.
• The size, shape, color, theme, texture and purpose of an accessory should blend harmoniously with the color scheme with the overall established arrangements in that particular room.
• If the room furnishings are primarily of one period (traditional/contemporary, modern etc.), the accessories should be of the same period or be in harmony with it.
• One of the important rules to follow in order to give the accessories their proper setting is to mix formal with formal and informal with informal.
• In all, accessories should meet the basic requirements of harmony.

Location and background of enrichment:

• Entrance door: table with flowers, plants/small sculpture below a mirror.
• Near major seating arrangement
• Near dining areas
• Walls opposite a bed : lighting fixture, mirror, painting
• Space above a desk
• End of the hall
• Out doors, Terrace/balconies
• Ends of garden paths

Points to consider in selection of accessories

• Proportion
• Style
• Balance
• Placement
• Colour
• Number of accessories

Ground Rules for Selecting and Placing accessories

• Select them which are meaningful contribute to the home and have intrinsic interest.
• Concentrate at important points related to the architecture and other  furnishings. For eg: there are some places where persons normally look i.e. entrance door, living, dining, bed rooms, space above desk, end of hall, out doors, terrace, gardens etc. then there are places which we want them to look with interest and pleasure. For eg: uninteresting corners, small wall spaces, below stair cases etc.
• Change accessories for variety, for the seasons and holidays and for other special occasions.
• Plan convenient storage for occasionally used objects.
• Upgrade the collection from time to time.
• Try something different to express individuality.
• Consider breakage hazards in case of mobility and small children handling it.
• Should follow the theme of the room.
• In a dainty room, they should be light and delicate. In a masculine room they can be heavier and sturdy.
• Too many little pieces placed around create confusion and indecision.
• Should represent interests and tastes.
• Should contribute to the unity of the room.

Care of accessories:

Care and maintenance of accessories is essential to serve the very purpose of using them. In brief, care tips based on material are as follows.

Brass: Polishing should be done by using appropriate polish. Traditionally cleaning was done with tamarind and salt.

Wood: Repairing, Varnishing, Polishing and painting gives a new look to the objects and also enhance the durability.

Glass: Slight warm water with soap (or) with tissue paper dipped in soapy water can be used.

Aluminum: Any mild detergent can be used for cleaning.

Ceramic: Objects can be cleaned by water and mild detergents.

Porcelain: Cleaned with a soap solution.

Plastics: Cleaned with a soap solution.

Cast iron: Rust can be removed, and then paint with synthetic enamel paint can be used.

Fabric: Periodical dusting, washing and ironing can be done, if it is washable. Dry cleaning can also be done.

Mirror: Tissue paper or news paper dipped in water can be used.

Small rugs: Small rugs can be washed if washable or vacuum cleaner, sun drying is also suggested, after the dust/soil is removed.

References

1. Nissen. L, Ray Faulkner and Sarah Faulkner, 1994, Inside Today’s Home, Wadsworth,Cengage learning, USA, Pg 584-586
2. Blake,j (1986),How to sole you interior Design problems, Hamlyn publishing, England
3. Faulkner, R. and Faulkner, S.(1975),Inside Today’sHome,4^th edition, Holt, Riehart and Winston, New York.
4. Kasu, A. A.(1995),An Introduction to art, Craft, Technique, Science of profession of Interior Design, Iqura Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Bombay

Assignment

1. Collect information on different places in your city to purchase accessories.
2. Prepare notes on care and maintenance of various accessories.

FLOWER ARRANGEMENT – DEFINITION, IMPORTANCE, TOOLS AND MECHANICS

Flower arrangements are used when individuals love to see nature, flowers plants lends beauty, cheer and sense of variety when you do not have contact with nature, garden. It is referred as emulating the nature.

Flowers used in home for decorating , offered to gods loose or as garland,  Adorn women’s hair, braids for hair , torans or garland near door. Also used to bring cheer to sick people.(add colour and bring cheer ) and help a sick person to recoup fast.- also in tray service in miniature arrangement.

In Interiors – Mainly flower carpets ( Kerala) are done to offer to gods.

Bouquets – can be Round , flat, single

For buttonhole on suits.

Definition

An orderly grouping of things or persons is considered as a unit. The result of arranging is “a flower arrangement”. Flower arrangement consisting of a single branch or shoot bearing flowers and foliage. Flower arrangement consisting of a circular band of foliage or flowers for ornamental purposes. Floral Design or floral arts is the art of creating flower arrangements in vases, bowls, baskets or other containers, or making bouquets and compositions from cut flowers, foliages, herbs, ornamental grasses and other plant materials.

Tools and materials used in flower arranging

Floral designers use a number of tools and materials for arrange flowers in vases and corsages. The materials used to assist the designer in placing and holding flowers are called mechanics.

Flower Holders/Pin Holders

Flower holders comprise the most important equipment in flower arranging. One of the easiest and most efficient holders to use is the needlepoint holder, which is simply a leaded base from which rises a dense cluster of sharp needles. The ends of flower stems may be stuck onto it in almost any position. Individual preference may be for other types of holders such as the hairpin type and a nest of wire loops rising from a base. Even the old-fashioned “Birdcage,” which is a framework of crossed wires in the form of a half-sphere, has its use for a mass arrangement. Try placing one firmly on top of a smaller needlepoint holder.

Holders should be anchored to the bottom of the container with modeling clay. A handful of crumpled chicken wire, placed in a tall, wide-mouthed container over the holder, gives additional support to long stems or branches which cannot rest against the sides of the container. In addition, the mouth may be stuffed with foliage to form a verdant surface from which the flowers rise from the rim of opaque containers.

Foliage as a Holder. In using foliage for a prop, use the flowers’ own foliage. Leaves have a definite relationship to the flowers of the plants they adorn. For example, the ugly foliage of the orchid is a fitting background for the bloom, enhancing by contrast the gorgeous color and delicate texture of the flower; and the austere leaves of such showy flowers as calla are a fitting complement to the bloom.

Pin Holders: To hold flower stems erect. Consisting of a heavy base and sharp, upright metal pins, stems are held on or between the pins. Pin holders are available in a wide range of shapes and sizes and should be chosen to suit the thickness of the stems being used.

Containers

Anything that holds water can be used as a container. However, the container must help to express the idea of the designer has in mind for the arrangement. If a designer selects delicate, white roses to create a formal feeling, a rustic clay container would not be as good a choice as a crystal one.

The container should add to the appearance of the arrangement and harmonize with the rest of the design and the display environment. For example, an arrangement in a silver container would not be appropriate for a backyard barbecue where it would not harmonize with its surroundings.

Containers are selected by their characteristics just as flowers are. When selecting a container, the designer should consider the texture, shape, size and color of the container.

Texture:
The texture of a container will depend largely upon tie material of which it is constructed. Containers are generally made of glass, glazed pottery, plastic, wood metal and papier-mâché, which is made of paper pulp. The textures of each of these materials can vary according to their finish. Generally, we think of containers with a smooth finish as having fine texture and containers with a smooth finish as having fine texture and containers with a rough finish as having a course one. The texture of the container should be compatible with that of the flowers. Silver containers have a fine texture and require the use of such flowers as roses and lilies. The rough texture of a wooden basket, on the other hand, would suggest the use of coarsely textured flowers, such as daisies and zinnias.

Shape:
The shape of a container is one of its most important characteristics. Commonly used shapes include vases, bowls, pedestals and baskets, the shape of a container often determines the form of the design. Bowls for example are often used for horizontal designs and low table arrangements, while vases would be used for more vertical designs. Containers should have clean lines and not be healthy decorated. Highly decorated containers attract attention to themselves and away from the finished arrangement. Containers in the shape of clowns or automobiles for example, should not be used except for special occasions.

Size:
The principles of scale and proportion will help select a container of the appropriate size. The flowers for an arrangement should be 1½ to 2 times the height of the container and the overall arrangement should be in a good size relationship with its setting. An arrangement to be placed in a church would need to be large, therefore requiring a large container. An arrangement for a dining room buffet would be much smaller and utilize a proportionately smaller container. The size of the container must create a feeling of stability and harmony with the arrangement.

Color:
The color of a container must harmonize with the color scheme of the flowers and the room where the flowers will be displayed. Container colors that do not blend with the colors of the flowers call attention to themselves and away from the flowers. A blending of colors is preferable to contrasting ones.

Green containers that echo the foliage are often used by florists. Other commonly used colors are tan, brown, gray and white. Only use white containers if the flowers are mostly white. White can draw attention away from the focal point. The principle of unity requires that the color of the container and flowers harmonize.

Urns:
An urn is a tall vase with a base and actually used to store a cremated person’s ashes. But, it can also be used as a flower container. It is suitable for making large arrangements, those that decorate the entrance of a house.

Baskets
Baskets are one of the popular flower container types. You can choose to use with handle or without handle baskets. Wire baskets or rattan baskets. When you do fruit baskets, you must use baskets. You can also decorate the basket to become a flower girl basket. It serves many purposes in floral arranging and something a florist cannot do without.

Glass vases
Glass vases are used when you just place a bunch of flowers in them to create a flower bouquet. It is clear and transparent that’s why it is best to just show the stems in the water. No arrangement is actually needed. But make sure the combination of flowers you choose is right. You could also put single flower type in the glass vase, like 12 stems of calla lilies. And, you’ve got yourself a flower bouquet.

Ceramic vases
Ceramic vases are also like glass vases but they are not transparent. Ceramic vases come in various colors and shapes.

Grapevine wreaths
Grapevine wreaths are specifically used to make wreaths. You can buy them at craft stores and is available is many diameters. You can make door wreaths, Christmas wreaths or Thanksgiving wreaths with it

Floral Form

The most commonly used material for holding the stems of flowers is floral foam. Chicken wire and needlepoint holders have limited use as holding devices; although before the manufacture of floral foam, these were used extensively. Today, chicken wire is used mainly along with floral foam to help support heavy stems in large arrangements. Needlepoint holders are sometimes used in designs where limited numbers of flowers are needed and floral foam would be visible.

Floral foam is soft, very absorbent lightweight material. When the stems of flowers are placed in the foam, they are able to take up water through the foam. Floral foam can be purchased in cases of 48 blocks that are 3 inches by 4 inches by 9 inches. For specially uses, foams enclosed in plastic cages are also available as is foam for dried and silk flowers .

Floral foam may be purchased in several different densities; The Smithers-oasis company is the most widely known manufactures of floral foam. This company is so well known that many florists refer to floral foam as oasis.

Floral foam should be thoroughly soaked with water before use. Floral preservative should be added to the water. The manufacturer recommends that floral foam be soaked using the free float method. Place a block of floral foam into a bucket or sink filled with preservative treated water to a height greater than the foam. As the foam absorbs the water, the block will gradually sink. When only one quarter inch of the block remains above the surface, the block is saturated and ready to be used. Instant foam absorbs water so quickly, it can be placed in the container dry and water poured over it when needed. Thoroughly soaking the floral foam is most important. Dry spots in the foam can cause flowers to wilt.

Various types of floral foams:

Adhesive materials:

Four kinds of adhesive materials, as shown in Figure 5-6, are used by most florists. They help to secure mechanics.

Waterproof or anchor tape is used to secure floral foam into the container. Anchor tape is available in half- and quarter-inch widths. The quarter-inch width is preferred since it covers less area when stretched over floral foam. The wider tape covers more area and can cause problems in the placement of flowers.

Anchor tape is available in green, white, and transparent varieties. Use the white tape on white containers and the green on colored containers. Green tape can be more easily hidden in the floral arrangement than white.

Stem wrap or floral tape is a waxed, stretchy type that only sticks to itself. The techniques for using this material will be explained in Unit 6. Stem wrap is mainly used in cor­sage work to create stems for the flowers used in the corsage. It is also sometimes used to hide wires or picks in other type designs.

Stem wrap is available in several widths, but half-inch is the most commonly used. It is sold in an assortment of col­ors to match the colors of the design. The most frequently used colors are green and white.

Floral adhesive clay is a sticky type material similar in texture to children’s “play dough.” It comes in a flattened strip wound onto a roll, with waxed paper between the lay­ers.

Two commonly sold brands are “Cling” and “Sure-Stik.”

Floral clay is used to fasten anchor pins (round plastic holders with four upright prongs used to hold floral foam in place) or to anchor pinpoint holders. Pinpoint holders are round devices of steel needles used to hold flow­ers. Small pieces of the clay are placed on the bottom of the holder, which is then pressed firmly against the container. Make certain the container surface is dry. Floral clay will not stick to a wet surface. Floral clay has one disadvantage. It will leave a sticky mark on the surface of the container which is difficult to remove. As a designer, you may want to be cau­tious in the use of clay on expensive containers.

Hot glue is an adhesive material that is used extensively in the florist shop. It is purchased in solid sticks that are in­serted into an electric gun to be melted into a liquid that hardens within seconds. Hot glue can also be melted in a glue pot or electric frying pan. A low-temperature hot glue is also available. It does not hold as well as the regular hot glue but is safer to use. Hot glue has a wide range of uses that includes design work with live and silk flowers.

Caution: Hot glue guns and hot glue can severely burn your skin.

Cutting tools:

A variety of cutting tools are used by florists in the construc­tion of corsages and arrangements. Each of these has a specific use. You will find that tools last longer if they are used correctly and properly maintained.

Floral knives are one of the most important tools used by the designer. The knife is used for cutting stems only, never used to cut wires with a knife. Because one may be success­ful in cutting small wires, but this makes knife dull.

Most florists prefer a knife for cutting stems because they make a quick clean cut. Other tools, such as shears, will cut the stem but may pinch the tubes that take up water, thereby restricting the flow of water to the plant.

Select a knife with a short, sharp blade that can be easily handled while working. Most designers hold the knife in their hand when not actually cutting. Laying the knife down after each cut would be a waste of time.

Select a knife with a short, sharp blade that can be easily handled while working. Most designers hold the knife in their hand when not actually cutting. Laying the knife down after each cut would be a waste of time.

Keep your knife sharp. You are less likely to cut yourself with a sharp knife. Hold the knife between the thumb and forefinger in the manner illustrated in Figure 5-9. Cut to­ward yourself at an angle. Do not attempt to cut hard woody stems in this manner. Ask your instructor to illustrate the correct use of the knife before you begin. Proceed slowly and with caution until you feel comfortable using the knife.

Florist shears are another tool that can be used for cut­ting stems. However, this tool is slower to use since it has to be laid down after each cut and as discussed earlier, it tends to pinch the stems restricting the uptake of water. The pri­mary uses of florist shears are cutting wires and ribbons

Ribbon Shears or scissors are use full for cutting ribbons and decorative foils used by the florist. Never cut stems or wires with ribbon shears.

Wire cutters are used for cutting wires and the stems of artificial flowers which contain a wire. Use wire cutters for cutting wires only, not on plant material or ribbon.

Pruning shears are useful for cutting heavy stems that are too large to be easily cut by a knife or florist shears. These are particularly useful when cutting woody stemmed materials that are sometimes used in arrangements. Pruning shears may be used to cut stems of up to one-half inch in diameter.

Picks:
Florists use wooden and steel picks. These are used mainly in funeral designs, to make wreaths, and in dried and artificial arrangements. Wooden picks can be purchased in the natural wood color or the more common green color. They come with or without a wire attached and may be from 2 1/2 to 7 inches in length. Wooden picks are used to add length or support the plant materials.

Steel picks are commonly sold in lengths of 1 3/4, 2 1/8, and 3 inches. They are attached to the stems of various mate­rials with a steel pick machine. The pick makes it easy to insert plant material into a wreath ring, styro foam, or other holding device.

Accessories

The term describes objects of non-plant material used in a design with plant material. It refers to things such as candles, jars, bottles, mirror which are not used as the container but are added to the design for extra interest. Accessories are not easy to incorporate into a design and it is wise to become reasonably accomplished in flower arrangement before starting the use of same.

The non living objects like pebbles, coal pieces, drift wood, pieces of rock etc. we can also use ribbons around the vase or in the form of bows which makes the arrangement beautiful. However, these accessories should not become the focal point of the arrangement design. Too much use of accessories is not a good habit. In few arrangements mirror can be used to reflect the arrangement.

Bows and other accessories are often used on the bud vase. If the bud vase is made for a special occasion, the accessories help contribute to the theme. For example, if the occasion were a Fourth of July celebration, then a red, white, and blue ribbon would complement the theme. A small flag would be an additional thematic accessory. Shamrocks on St. Patrick’s Day would be an ideal acces­sory. Butterflies and bumble bees are often used on novelty bud vases.

References

1. Charles Griner, 2005, Floriculture- Designing and Merchandising, Delmar Publishers, An International Thomson Publishing Company.
2. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Flower+bouquet
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_bouquet
4. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Wreath

Assignment

1. Collect the place of availability and cost of various flowers in the local market.
2. Collect the pictures related to the tools and equipment used for making flower arrangements.

SHAPES AND TYPES OF FLOWER ARRANGEMENT

Floral arrangements brighten up any space adding color and fragrance. Basic floral arrangements are made with line, filler and  focal or mass flowers. They should be beautiful and harmonize with their setting. The shape, style, color and size of the flowers and their containers should balance. In addition, the arrangement should imply some theme or aspect of your personality, decor or event. There are rules for arranging flowers as well, and include line arrangements, mass arrangements and line-mass arrangements. Use three stems, or only odd numbers, of any variety of flowers.

SHAPES OF FLOWER ARRANGEMENT

The basic flower arrangements are constructed with shape and symmetry in mind.

 Horizontal arrangement:  A horizontal flower arrangement consists of a low arrangement of a single big flower that is flanked on the sides by some drooping flowers or branches. The flowers of different colors are arranged in rows or on zig zag basis with the help of this type of flower arrangement. Usually strongly scented or fragrant flowers are used for this purpose. A very shallow container is used to make this type of flower arrangement. It has strong, low horizontal lines that are parallel with the surface on which it Is placed. Many times the longest stems are extended beyond the normal proportions resulting in an enhanced horizontal line.  In addition they are often angled downward, providing a soft arching look.  This design is considered to be a restful and tranquil arrangement since it provides a feeling of stability. Normally this design will feature a single large flower as its focal point. This particular arrangement is perfect for a dining room or coffee table. One might also consider using this arrangement on a windowsill, shelf or as an accent under a picture.

Vertical A vertical floral arrangement is tall and dramatic. Long-stemmed flowers such as roses, lilies and sunflowers give the bouquet height. Then a few shorter flowers are integrated to balance out the arrangement. It is one of the mostly used flower arrangement in bouquets as well as flower baskets.

A vertical flower arrangement has an overall appearance of power and strength. The vertical style most often requires a focal point either near the top of the arrangement or the rim. In a true vertical design, the materials used will remain within the width of the container and very seldom will it extend beyond the sides. The finished product will be a very tall floral arrangement. Most times you will find lilies, roses, and carnations used in this type of arrangement. Cattails, thistle and twigs are also a popular material found in this arrangement style

Torch arrangement is tall and commanding can also be a long mas arrangement in a tall vase. It is a vertical symmetrical arrangement . Usually used in large spaces as a point of interest  and centre   of attraction.This is mainly used for height effect because of Its vertical design.

DIAGONAL SHAPE : Tall containers are best. Almost straight stems are needed.The whole arrangement should be 11/2 to 2 times the height of the vase.Shells are also good for this.Light flowers should be used not the dark and heavy ones.

Triangular:  It is the flower arrangement as the name suggests is triangular in shape. It has a formal balanced look. A few taller flowers are placed in the middle, while smaller ones radiate from the center at three points. Filler flowers and foliage are then used to fill in the rest of the arrangement. The whole flower bunch is cut and trimmed in the shape of a triangle to make this shape. These flower arrangements usually have a big flower in the middle, adding to the beautification of the flower arrangement bunch. These flowers are arranged in bright flower bouquets covered with glossy and transparent cellophane papers.

It is a popular shape for symmetrical arrangements. The first step is to establish lines of height and width, usually with flowers or foliage of finer form or paler colour. The next step is to establish a focal point of interest with large or darker-coloured flowers. Fill in with flowers of varied stem lengths, grouping colours.

• Left triangle-     made in a shallow container with consecutive stem along the left side.
• Right triangle –     like the left triangle arrangement, but the tallest stem on the right side of the container with consecutive stem.

It is a most common arrangement of flowers used in Personal and Professional functions. Firstly, height and width is fixed with flowers and then focal point is established. It is made in the triangle shape and looks very attractive. They are placed on the buffet table or in the side station. In ceremonies we can find this kind of arrangements.It is the flower arrangement as the name suggests is triangular in shape. The whole flower bunch is cut and trimmed in the shape of a triangle to make this shape. These flower arrangements usually have a big flower in the middle, adding to the beautification of the flower arrangement bunch. These flowers are arranged in bright flower bouquets covered with glossy and transparent cellophane papers.

Most arrangements used for ceremonies are of this kind. Here the centre is made of the tallest flower stem and the other flowers are cut to size to arrange around the centre and maintain the triangular shape. The triangle can be either symmetrical, having three equal sides, which will make the arrangement appear to as wide as it is tall.  This type of triangle is usually looked at as formal. Or the triangle can be asymmetrical with three unequal sides. This design has a vertical axis positioned off center, with the floral materials being placed unequally on each side. This type of triangle would normally be considered as less formal and more natural in appearance.Flat /rounded/Taza/goblet/wine cup/cylindrical shape.Pin holder is always in the centre.

The equilateral triangle has been one of the most popular designs in flower arranging

There are two types of triangles – Right angle triangle and left angle triangle.

The right angled or left angled triangular Arrangemnet :

The right angled triangle is nothing but a squared – off cousin of the crescent.Only its lines are straighter and its focal point precisely at the ninety degrees angle.Triangles could face right or left depending upon the loctation.These arrangements with asymmetrical triangles are very appealing because of their attractive lines and and are most effective in low rectangular containers.

Crescent A crescent arrangement takes the shape of a crescent moon. The trick to making a crescent arrangement is to find flowers and foliage whose stems are strong and naturally curve. Gladiolus, ferns and carnations with flexible stems work. Usually a few long and curved flowers make up the tall part of one side of the crescent, where fuller and stockier flowers make up the base. This type of flower arrangement is also known as the C type of flower arrangement in which the freshly plucked flower with green leaves and stem fillers are used on a flower basket arrangement. The flower basket with this flower arrangement looks very beautiful and gorgeous. These are usually supported by glossy flower wraps and the leaves, and the flowers are tied with silk, satin made colorful ribbons.

The crescent is asymmetrical and formal. It requires lot of skill and experience. This type of arrangement is very eye catching. It is kept in the lobby of the hotel. It is used as a focal point to catch the attention of the guest. This type of flower arrangement is also known as the C type of flower arrangement in which the freshly plucked flower with green leaves and stem fillers are used on a flower basket arrangement. The flower basket with this flower arrangement looks very beautiful and gorgeous. These are usually supported by glossy flower wraps and the leaves, and the flowers are tied with silk, satin made colorful ribbons.

The Crescent arrangement captures the shape of the moon and is also known as a “C” shaped design. Because of the crescent shape this style requires a strong focal point to maintain its visual balance. This involves using curved shaped flower stems selected based on the crescent’s size.  Gladiola and carnations with flexible stems work well here. Crescents used with a downward curve are found many times in bridal bouquets.

Lazy “S” or “Hogarth’s Curve”  shaped flower arrangement

It is the type of flower arrangement which has the shape of ‘S’. These are arranged in the form of flower bouquets and baskets. These are usually big in size and can be presented in any occasion or celebration. These are placed in flower stands and look upright. A lot of leaves with floral fillers are also used for this arrangement. The entire look of the place is changed where this flower arrangement is placed.

Called the Lazy “S” as flowers are arranged to form an approximate “S” shape, this arrangement is a very complex type and usually requires a lot of professional skill.  This type of arrangement is visualized as two semicircles, one placed on top of the other with the focal area being between both the upward and downward curving lines. The stems of flowers used in this arrangement are bent into gentle curves. This style was pioneered by an 18^th century painter, William Hogarth. It is the type of flower arrangement which has the shape of ‘S’. This is a very graceful and easier to make arrangement when curved branches and pliable stems are used. After establishing the S shape with these, flowers are filled in at the centre and just above and below the rim of the tall container. The vase used needs to be tall, graceful, sturdy and well balanced. The Hogarth curve is achieved with pliable stems or curved branches and putting some flowers in the centre and some flowers and foliage sweeping gently below the rim of the container.

Hogarth or ‘S’ shape: This is very graceful style of arrangement. It is easier to make when curved branches are used. Once ‘S’ shape is made, flowers are filled at the center.

This arrangement is ideal for displaying on narrow shelves or mantle pieces, top of a dresser

Oval  flower arrangements are most appropriate for formal gatherings. They consist of a group of larger and taller flowers in the center and then fan out at two sides. As the flowers spread outward, both their size and brightness of color should diminish. An example of this would be using deep purple flowers in the center and then using more lighter and subdued lilacs and whites at the sides.

This type of flower arrangement are oval shaped and are highly recommended by most of the reputed florist organizations of the world. The flowers, green stems and leaves are cut and trimmed in the form of an oval shaped and skillfully placed in different flower arrangements like bouquets, baskets and bunches. The flower arrangement looks very much dense and bushy from outside. Thus, it is very much good looking. This flower arrangement is widely used in interior decoration purposes and also ceremony hall decoration purposes in different parts of the world.

There are two types of oval flower arrangement designs, oval and pointed oval. The oval design is a variation of a circular form with its shape being elliptical to the eye. Oval arrangements are always symmetrically balanced and are generally one sided but they can also be all sided too.

The pointed oval is a more elongate shape than the oval.  They are mostly arranged as an all sided arrangement with the tops being more peaked than rounded in design.  The pointed oval at times can resemble a tear drop shape.  The oval designs are always symmetrically balanced. Both the oval and the pointed oval flower arrangements are usually used in formal settings.

The cascade flower arrangement

It is a gorgeous and bushy flower arrangement. Apart of flowers, leaves and stems, a lot of fresh green grass is also used to prepare this very special type of flower arrangement. These are mostly arranged in flower bouquets and presented in the wedding anniversaries and wedding ceremonies of all religions. The fresh fragrance and gorgeous color of the flower arrangement makes the wedding ceremony more memorable and enjoyable. Thus, it is very popular all over the globe.

All the above-mentioned types of flower arrangements are supplied by the most renowned florist companies based in India. These companies contain a group of highly trained and skilled professionals who arrange the flowers in the best possible way and using the best color combinations. These flowers are available online on the official website with the most reasonable prices. Bulk purchase orders can also be placed on the website, and good discount schemes are also available from them.

Minimal Minimal flower arrangements can give off an elegant and understated look. They usually consist of just one or a few flowers in a smaller vase or a bud vase, depending on the size of the flower. For a dramatic look, choose an exotic bloom like an orchid. Here you can emphasize the form and color of one particular flower, which might get lost in a bigger bouquet.

The fan shaped flower arrangement

It is one of the most commonly used classic flower arrangement styles used by the flower arrangers. In this flower arrangement, the flowers and leaves are arranged in the shape of a fan. The leaves are like the flower blades. Some differently colored flowers are also used for this flower arrangement. The same or different types of flower with various colors are used for this type of flower arrangement. The empty space within the flower arrangements are filled up by using the fillers. These are gorgeous in looks with wonderful shape and size. Thus, this flower arrangement is very popular.

Fan shaped designs are half circles, one-sided and symmetrically balanced.  They are typically wider than they are tall.  It is noted that this particular shape technically should be twice as wide as it is tall.  The materials used in this style appear to radiate from the central point and are designed with equal weight on each side of the central vertical axis.  The materials on each side may look alike, or as long as both sides are equal to the eye, the flowers need not be the same.  To help keep the visual balance of the design, smaller and lighter colored flowers are normally used at the outer areas with the larger and darker or brighter flowers placed closer to the center.

It is a low arrangement and it does not interfere with conversation across the table. It is a fan or a horizontal in shape generally placed in the restaurant either in buffet or on dining table. Hotel rooms also have this kind of arrangement

Elliptical flower arrangement

In this type of flower arrangement, the flowers are placed and arranged in the form of an ellipse. The flowers, which are commonly used for this purpose are roses, sunflowers, dahlia, lotus, tuberoses, lilies and many more. Thus, only bright flowers are used for this purpose. The flowers are bright as well as sweet scented. These are mostly bouquet arrangement and ideal to be presented in birthday, wedding and other types of parties. These are really attractive in looks. The best color combination of the flowers is used for this flower arrangement purpose.

Circular

    The circular shape inspires its form from the naturally occurring circular shape of majority of flowers. The circular shape being repetitive is satisfying to the viewer’s eye. By inter spreading with flowers ,one can avoid monotony of round flowers in a circular design.

Arranging flower in circular design adds a pleasing element. It is satisfying to the viewer’s eye. The circular or round shape is loved by nature since majority of flowers lies in this shape. In fact, its also easier to arrange flowers in circular fashion. This type of arrangement is laid on conference tables or on buffet tables. They can be presented to high class executives or politicians on different occasion.

Choice of the container is Oval or circular

Type of flowers – Roses, Carnations, Daisies etc.

Landscape Style Flower Arranging

The landscape style flower arrangement is one that resembles a large area of nature such as manicured gardens or landscaped areas. They use foliage, flowers and branches to represent the landscape design. They are usually arranged with taller materials in in the back, making the arrangement display one sided.  The use of clay pots, twigs, rocks, moss, sand, etc., are used to add detail to the arrangement. Most of the materials used are found within the same environment and during the same seasonal period.  

Flower arranging have developed over the years and throughout those years, many flower arrangement styles have been identified.

Basically, they can be divided into 3 styles

1. Traditional flower arrangements,
2. Oriental flower arrangements and
3. Modern flower arrangements

Traditional Flower Arrangements:

Traditional flower design, also known as Western flower arrangements, is the time-honoured common flower arranging style where the design is enriched with a large number of beautiful, colourful flowers. Apart from the vase in which the flowers are arranged, almost no other accessories are used in this flower style.

Traditional floral arrangements are actually the Western flower arrangements or you can say that it is another name for it. This is the common style seen all around the world with all the florists. The traditional floral arrangements contain numerous bright cut flowers. This type of flower arrangement does not cater to many accessories in fact usually contain no accessories at all. The only accessory that you may find in these flower arrangements is vases.

The above defines all flower arrangement types are widely practiced all around the world with high class experts working in each category and creating such wonders that can mesmerize any one for hours.

Oriental Flower Arrangements:

Oriental flower design is the general term used to refer to Chinese or Japanese styles, where the focus is mainly on the appearance of the arrangement. The linear style of Oriental flower arrangements emphasise the negative spaces, floral forms and the textures used in the arrangement.

The very famous form of Japanese floral arrangements Ikebana is also a type of oriental flower arrangement. Int his flower type of flower arrangement the main emphasis is over Lines. These actually focus over the appearance of arrangement. The negative spaces, floral forms and textures all are paid a great attention when it comes to the linear style of oriental flower arrangements.

The Ikebana style is a little different as it emphasize on the lines of leaves and twigs instead of flowers. The container in which the floral arrangement is prepared is another important part of Ikebana type of flower arrangements.

Modern Flower Arrangements:

The modern flower arrangement is more of a free style of flower arrangement. In this type of flower arrangement there are no particular lines over which the florist design the arrangement in fact it is on the wish of florist as to how he wants to arrange the flowers. No traditional style of flowers arrangement is adopted for modern flower arrangements. There are different accessories used in modern flower arrangements and considerable emphasis is over the containers like in oriental form of flower arrangements.

Use of geometric motifs and geometric themes is often adopted by the florists making the people realize the philosophies and intervention of geometry into our daily lives.

Modern flower arrangements are the aesthetic use of clean, sleek lines, but generally all the styling depends on the likes and dislikes of the designer. The design of such an arrangement does not follow the traditional outline of arranging flowers. Instead the use of different accessories is combined with the minimal use of bright flowers. Modern flower arrangements make use of ornamental geometric motifs and clean-lined containers to carry the geometric theme through into everyday life.

TYPES OF FLOWER ARRANGEMENT

Types of flower and foliage arrangements of today may be generally classified as line, mass or line-mass (“massed line”) arrangements. A line arrangement emphasizes line; a mass arrangement emphasizes mass (and color). A line-mass arrangement combines both line and mass effects.

There are rules for arranging flowers as well, and include line arrangements, mass arrangements and line-mass arrangements. Use three stems, or only odd numbers, of any variety of flower.

Line Arrangements

Line arrangements are often minimal and sparse looking, having only a few branches, leaves or flowers. When making line arrangements, the space between the pieces is as important as the pieces themselves. These arrangements are created to be viewed from one side only, meaning they are asymmetrical. For a flowing look in your arrangement, opt for pieces that have extra leaves and flowers removed, while choosing thicker, fuller pieces for a sturdy effect. For smaller arrangements, use three stems, but to make larger arrangements, use five or seven pieces, always working with an odd number of main stems. Choose low, flat bowls for the container or pedestal type containers for the best results.

Mass Arrangements

Mass arrangements are composed of many types and colors of flowers. Typically, there are three or more varieties of flowers in several different color shades; these are grouped together in different areas of the arrangement. Arrangements can be shaped to suit your preferences, but make sure that you keep the size of the arrangement in proportion to the size of the container. Suitable containers for mass arrangements should be about 5 inches tall with a 5-inch opening. A larger or smaller container can be used, but the container should be no more than two-fifths of the total arrangement. Use spray-shaped flowers to fill in gaps in the arrangement. The focal flowers (the main type of flower) should be placed so that flowers near the top of the arrangement face up, ones near the bottom of the arrangement tilt downward, and others face to the right and left, adding variety to the arrangement. Although all of the stems will not be visible, it should be readily apparent that all of the flowers are coming from the same place—the center of the container.

Line-Mass Arrangements

Line-mass arrangements combine the components of line arrangements and mass arrangements, as the name suggests. However, you will need to decide if you want to emphasize the line or the mass aspect of the arrangement. Select several types of flowers, both tall ones that fill the line requirements and spray flowers that fill the mass requirements, in different colors. Group like kinds of flowers together, merging them with the addition of foliage or background flowers (tiny, pale-colored flowers) to create a cohesive body. Line-mass arrangements look best if they are triangular in shape, and housed in a shallow bowl about 6 to 8 inches wide. Do not worry if the arrangement doesn’t look good from all sides, as line-mass arrangements are generally asymmetrical.

References

1. Charles Griner, 2005, Floriculture- Designing and Merchandising, Delmar Publishers, An International Thomson Publishing Company.
2. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Flower+bouquet
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_bouquet
4. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Wreath

Assignment

1. Prepare an e-scrap book on types, shapes and styles of flower arrangement.
2. Collect information and pictures on suitability of flower arrangements in different place of residential and commercial buildings.

PRINCIPLES OF FLOWER ARRANGEMENT, UTILITY AND CARE

A beautiful bouquet of flowers can brighten  the grayest days. When the bouquet comes from the florist it will probably be in clean water containing preservative and the flowers and foliage will have been conditioned to maximize their vase life. But the flowers are living organisms and are in a constant state of change. They need food and water to maintain their beauty but environmental conditions and microorganisms like fungi and bacteria are at work and will cause wilting and deterioration. By following a few suggestions you can slow this process down and enjoy the flowers for more than a week or two.

Do’s

1. Take of all leaves below the water otherwise they will spoil the water. This will also allow more water to reach the blooms.
2. Try recessing some flowers in order to get depth to the arrangement.
3. Place a base under a top heavy arrangement.
4. Use square or oblong containers when angular designs are required.
5. Crush or split the ends of all woody materials before placing it in an arrangement.
6. Group varieties and colour instead of dotting them about in a design.
7. Make sure there is water in the container before commencing the arrangement.
8. Give the flowers at least two hours of drinking before arranging. Flowers soaked in tepid water are best. Water has less oxygen and hence less formation of air bubbles.
9. Make the first placement very firm.
10. Subtly cover the rim of the wax with drooping material in order to make the flowers and vase appear as one unit.
11. Make a definite plan for the arrangement at the beginning.
12. Restrain an arrangement to one idea only.
13. First decide on a basic form and then on details. Begin with sketelon and then build towards the centre as focal point.
14. Cut all stews different have shortest on largest flowers.
15. Arrange the tallest and widest materials first.
16. Have one leading line and then repetitions of it.
17. Extend some low material forward to create depth.
18. Locate the focal point low and near the centre use the best material for the focal point.
19. Let plant material cover part of container.
20. Avoid regular spacing and stair step sequence.
21. Avoid even number of flowers.
22. Distinctive flowers should be used alone and small flowers should be in bunches.
23. Use large, medium and small leaves on flowers together.
24. Container should decide the height of the arrangement.
25. For tall arrangement use atleast three steps and the top of the arrangement should be slender.
26. In a triangular arrangement stem holder may be off centre.
27. A cone arrangement should be solid in feeting.
28. The biggest stem in the arrangement should be 1 ½ times the height on width of the container.
29. Use smaller lighter flowers on the outside and larger darker flowers towards the centrefront.
30. Select firm and hard plant material.
31. Trim the material if it gives a better line and a clean and clear look.
32. Always use clean vases and containers. This will prevent any bacteria from ruining the quality of flowers.
33. Change the water every three or four days.
34. Once or twice a day spray the flowers with fresh water.
35. If the flowers are to be kept out of water for some time, cover the stem ends with damp paper or pack them in their own water pod.
36. Cut stems at an angle. 

Dont’s

1. Don’t cut a stem until you are sure it must be shorter.
2. Don’t spread out the stem at the base. All leaves should appear to come from approximately the same spot.
3. Don’t use equal amounts of different colours when combining them. Allow one type to dominate.
4. Don’t place dark flower high in the arrangement unless the quality of lighter flowers create a proper balance.
5. Don’t allow the holder to be seen.
6. Don’t put the flowers near heat, as in direct sun or hot places.
7. Don’t forget to keep your container filled with water.
8. Don’t change the water once an arrangement is made but top it up with fresh water whenever required.
9. Don’t push the flower upright onto a vase.

Tips on using and locating flower arrangement

1. Consider the personality of family/individual/group.
2. Consider the occasion
3. Consider the resource
4. Consider the placement.

Guidelines for new arrangers/ beginners- Plant material

1. Restraint in number, colour, texture, prize, etc.
2. Number of varieties: one variety is preferable.
3. Size- flower and foliage should be closer in size and scale.
4. Colour- restraint
5. Container- in harmony with the plant material.
6. Space- loose and airy not bunched.
7. Shapes of plant material- natural shapes to be considered.

Reasons for a flower arrangement not being fresh

1. Flower and plant material not conditioned.
2. Air blocks formation.
3. Less or no water.

CARE AND PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

• Select flowers that are healthy.
• Use flowers with healthy looking, unbroken stems.
• Healthy leaves are a clear sign of a healthy flower, and use flowers that are in bloom.
• Do not include a myriad of colors, a powerful combination of 1-3 key colors is a far more successful combination. The use of more than three color combinations makes your arrangement instantly look disorganized and unpleasant.
• Cut the stem at and angle just before inserting in the water/preservative
• Use Floral Foam, it contains a preservative that will help keep your flowers fresh and prevent the growth of bacteria
• Wrap Your Floral foam in Foil to prevent leakage and spilling of your water
• Prune any unnecessary foliage away before you begin the arrangement
• Helpful Hints for Fresh Flowers
  Scour containers with a plastic pot cleaner, brush or sponge and rinse with a mild solution of chlorine bleach.
  • Remove all leaves and foliage below the water line. They decay quickly, have an acrid odor and distract from the design.
  •Cut stems under water.
  • Cut ends of stems on a slant. Crush the ends of thick stems.
  • To change the water in a cut flower arrangement place the vase in a sink or bucket and add purified water until the vase overflows and the water runs clear. The life of the arrangement will be significantly extended by not exposing the stems to air.

Basically do not:

• Try and cram in a dozen different types of flowers, A mass of flowers will merely give you a decoration but not really pleasant and emotion inspiring
• Fight the natural arrangement of a few flowers – they naturally arrange themselves for a reason
• Use flowers that are all at the same stage of development – If all of your flowers are in full bloom at the same time, your arrangement will look cluttered
• Cut your flowers too short to reach the water source as if the flowers can’t reach the water, they cannot live.
• Try too hard to be artistic, start simple and then slowly develop your skills – like most things in life, flower arranging is a skill that you will learn to appreciate and become better at with practice
• Disregard where the arrangement is going to be located when finished – A centerpiece for a dining table is going to require an entirely different arrangement than a bouquet for a funeral placement

Life-Prolonging Techniques
Flowers are composed of 90% water. Water keeps the flowers firm, fresh and alive.

• Water dissolves and transports nutrients throughout the plant.
• Facilitating the maximum flow of water and nutrients is the secret to longer lasting flowers.

Flowers require a healthy environment to live long and prosper.

• They need to be in clean containers; free from bacteria that clogs the stems and prevents circulation of water and nutrients.
• Vases and storage containers need to be scrubbed and rinsed with a mild solution of Clorox before or after each use.
• Flowers also require clean air. An arrangement placed by an open window where traffic is heavy, or in a room where people are smoking will not last as long as one placed in a well-ventilated environment.
• Just as pollutants inhibit the health and life of birds, fish and animals, they diminish the beauty and life of cut flowers.

Cut flowers and arrangements respond to the temperature of the water.

• Warm water encourages buds and closed flowers to open, and cool temperatures slow down development, adding longevity to the arrangement.
• Excessive hot or cold water causes plant damage.
• Flowers droop and wilt when placed in hot water and die quickly in very cold water.

Cut flowers require the proper kind and correct amount of nourishment.

• Floral preservatives are special mixtures of chemicals that have been developed and perfected to prolong the life of flowers.
• They contain a sugar base to keep the flower’s energy level high, ingredients to inhibit the growth of bacteria and chemicals that lower the pH factor thereby enhancing water uptake. They are available in both liquid and powder form. Follow the instructions carefully.
• Some flowers are naturally short-lived (3-4 days), while others can last two weeks or more. Using flower preservatives is a life-prolonging tool.

Some hints:

• Always cut your flower stems under running water. It will preserve them longer and give them a  longer vase life.
• You should not remove the leaves on mums when arranging them. The leaves keep the flower fresher longer.
• Full strength lemon juice misted on gardenias will prevent them from browning.
• When arranging gardenias and stephenotis,  always wet your hands first,  the oil from your hands will turn the flowers brown.
• When using tulips let the tulips sit in a vase until the flower has opened to the look you want. Dipping the head of the tulip in egg white will prevent the flower from opening any further.

Be careful when adding daffodils with other flowers in the same vase. The fresh cut daffodils can cause the other flowers to wilt earlier.

Pre-Arranging Treatment
In order to destroy bacteria from previous plants, scrub plastic buckets and vases with detergent and rinse thoroughly.

• Rinse again with a mild solution of bleach; one cap full per gallon of water. Bacteria from unclean containers are a primary cause of short-lived arrangements. They clog the stems preventing the life-giving water from reaching the head of the flower and nourishing the complete plant.
• Plastic storage containers are preferable to metal ones, because the metal can interact negatively with preservatives and shorten plant life.

Fill a clean, plastic storage bucket half full of bottled or purified water and the proper amount of preservatives.

• It is important to use purified or bottled water, because the chemicals and hard minerals in tap water block the flow of water in the stems.
• Allow the water to sit for a half hour so trapped air can be released, and so the water can reach room temperature.
• Trim off all broken, dying, diseased, wilted or damaged flowers and leaves.
• This is preparation for arranging as well as for cleaning off bacteria producing plant material.
• Remove the lower leaves from the stems.

Make the stem ends even, then hold them several inches underwater.

• Cut 1″ from the bottom of the stems.
• Make sure your cutting tools are sharp.
• A water droplet will form on the end of the stems and prevent air bubbles from entering and blocking the flow of water when you transfer the flowers to the storage bucket.
• Semi-woody stemmed flowers like hydrangeas, clematis, helleborus, poppies etc., exude a sticky sap. The sap pollutes the water and kills the other flowers. The stems need to be cauterized in order to seal in the sap. Immerse the fresh cut stem ends in boiling water for ten seconds, or hold them over a candle flame until the ends are sealed. Water will be absorbed through the cell walls of the stems. Solid woody stems that do not exude sap do not require cauterization. They need to be mashed to maximize water uptake.
• Some flowers benefit from total immersion in cool water, if they have been left out of water for a few hours. They drink the moisture through their cell walls and regain their composure. Roses, peonies, lilies, wilted violets, wild flowers and especially tropical flowers rebound stronger than ever with a tepid bath before being placed in a storage container for hydration in a preservative solution.

Post-Arranging Treatment

• As individual flowers die, remove them to keep the arrangement looking fresh and to direct the energy of the flower to the development of emerging buds.
• Sometimes, if a flower has wilted, or looks a little “tired”, shorten the stem, remove some of the foliage, and put it in a smaller vase.
• Avoid getting water on the leaves and flowers.
• Tulips that have curled up can be straightened by carefully placing them upright in a tall, straight vase and adding a couple of pennies to the water.
• To perk up roses when their heads begin to droop, take them out of the arrangement and place them in a tepid bath for an hour or so. Cut an inch off the stems under water before putting them back in a clean vase.
• When using growing plants in an arrangement, submerge the whole plant in tap water to clean the leaves and roots. Then, hydrate them in a preservative solution before adding them to your arrangement

How can you increase the vase life of flowers?

• Most cut flowers imported from other States to Hyderabad
• Conditioning cut flowers
  • Remove excess foliage and thorns
    • Remove any leaves below water in bucket
    • Bacteria will quickly decompose leaves
    • Thorns may damage other flowers
  • Re-cutting stems
    • Bubbles of air in stem block water uptake
    • Make fresh cut removing ½” to 1” of old stem
    • Make fresh cut under water to prevent new air bubbles
  • Flower preservatives
    • Chemicals added to water to increase vase life of cut flowers
    • Prevent bacterial growth
    • Vase life- period of time after cutting flowers that they can be held and look good
    • Always use plastic buckets
  • Water for flowers
    • Use warm tap water (100-105 degrees)
    • Place in 34-38 degree cooler

References

1. Charles Griner, 2005, Floriculture- Designing and Merchandising, Delmar Publishers, An International Thomson Publishing Company.
2. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Flower+bouquet
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower_bouquet
4. http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Wreath

Assignment

1. Collect information on types of vases used for making flower arrangement.
2. Prepare a pamphlet on care and maintenance of flower vases and holders.

TABLE SETTING- TYPES AND STYLES

Table setting refers to the way to set a table with table ware such as eating utensils and dishware. Table decorations play an important part in creating the style of the setting – fruit, flowers, candles and so on can be chosen to suit the seasons as well as the occasion. The dining area is an important center for family living for both psychological and physiological reasons, eating should always be a pleasant experience. A table and all its appointments should be considered a design in three dimensions. The table itself should have fine simple, structural and functional design.

Types: There are two types of table settings: formal and informal.

Formal: Utensils are placed about one inch from the edge of table, each one lining up at the base with the one next to it. Utensils on the outermost position are used first. The glasses are positioned about an inch. The most formal dinner is served from the kitchen. When the meal is served, in addition to place at each setting there is the roll, the napkin and the following cutlery/silver: knives and spoons where applicable to the right and forks to the left. Spoons are placed on the saucer to the right of each handle. The utensils at formal dinner must be sterling silver. Serving dishes and utensils are placed on table for a formal dinner.

Informal: At an informal setting, fewer utensils are used and serving dishes are placed on table. Sometimes the cup and saucer are placed on right side of the spoon, about four inches from the edge of table. Often, in less formal settings, the napkin and or cutlery may be held together in a single bundle by a napkin ring. For an informal meal, you will need significantly less dinnerware. A very casual meal may only require a single plate, spoon, knife and fork. A larger informal meal will probably require a dinner plate, salad plate and butter plate.

Dressing the table: Table cloths can play an important role in linking the various elements of a room into a harmonious scheme. The fabric can be used to link different styles of furniture; a modern, monochrome treatment of a traditional bird or flower design, made up into a simple square or rectangular cloth, helps harmonize modern chairs and antique occasional pieces. Table cloths can also add a real finishing touch to a room scheme when they are used to cover unsightly second hand tables or cheap, unfinished chipboard display tables.

Table cloths and Place mats: A good looking table top, which has been made heat resistant, needs no cover of any kind.

Expressiveness: Informality is the theme of most meals of today; therefore table cloths have been replaced by small mats. Fabrics, fiber, tin, wood, cork, plastics and string are employed for mats, consequently they vary greatly in character. Large damask linen cloths are still used for formal occasions and sometimes for buffet service.

Colour: In the average home it is well to use brightly coloured napkins and placemats or small tablecloths, especially if the glassware and dishes are colourless. The table cloth sometimes acts as a link in colour between the table and the rest of the room.

Pattern: Decorative design is of course not necessary in table cloths or mats, but if patterns are used they should preferably be stylized or geometric. Naturalistic motifs are structural if they are concentrated in definite areas such as borders. Stripes, plaids, polka dots or simple borders are the most attractive departures from plain table cloths.

Decorative table accessories: The central table decoration should have the same feeling aesthetically as the china, glassware, and table cover. In other words, all should agree in mood, style, colour and texture.

Mood: The centerpiece expresses the theme of the table setting. The more personal, original and delightful a centerpiece is the better. Holidays and special occasions provide reasons for center pieces expressive of some definite idea as formal or casual. A table centerpiece for a children’s party should be very different from that for grandmother’s birthday dinner, a bridge luncheon. If food is something special it naturally sets the theme for the table decoration.

Style: It is customary to have a table centerpiece agree in style with table, table equipment and surroundings. For example, a Victorian feeling could be produced by a lush flower mound, a three-tier or a pair of ornate vases.

Colour: The center piece really sets the colour sets the colour scheme for a meal. Although each course may well vary somewhat in colour, all should be in harmony with the centerpiece. For example, a gray linen cloth, a low compact mound of orange and yellow zinnias in a pewter bowl, yellow candles in pewter candlesticks and umber glasses and bread and butter plates would determine the colour scheme for dishes and food.

Formal setting: It is customary for flatware to be arranged in the order in which it is to be used, starting from the outside and working in. This method has a practical advantage, because it allows guests to see how many corses are to be served and to pace themselves accordingly.

For a formal place setting, flatware should be arranged in the order in which it will be used, starting at the outside on each side of the plate. First, the soup spoon, then the entrée knife and form (luncheon knives and forks may be used), then the dinner knife and fork for the main course, and on occasion, closest to the plate, the dessert spoon or fork. In this arrangement the bread and butter knife is placed above the plate on a folded napkin. Utensils for the dessert course are usually brought on when dessert is served. Knives should always have their cutting edge turned toward the plate.

If space from side to side is limited or if you want a less formal appearance, the dessert spoon and fork can be placed above the dinner plate, continental-style, the spoon on top with the handle to the right and the fork below it, facing in the opposite direction. This arrangement is widely used in Europe for family meals. The bread knife is placed on the bread and butter plate, together with a napkin loosely tied with a twist of leaves, while the wine glass is placed on the right of a glass which will be used for water.

Other ways of displaying or presenting flatware can bring a note of individuality to a table setting. You can tie each place setting of knives, forks and spoons into a bundle with paper ribbon, satin ribbon, gauze ribbon, shiny cord and place it on the dinner plate.

Different occasions will prompt different solutions for table arrangements. For eg: if it is a tea party to celebrate a graduation, could add to the decorative effect of the table by tying the knives in bundles of six or eight with white, pink, blue or lemon-coloured satin ribbon. If the occasion was to celebrate a golden wedding, could tie the silverware with multiple twists of shiny gold cord, while for a Christmas feast, could wrap each place setting in a red or green napkin tied up with tartan ribbon.

The presentation of a Chinese, Japanese or Thai meal gives the opportunity to crate a different cultural ambience around the table, by using split-cane placemats, decorative rice bowls  and chopsticks. Long, slender, and elegant chopsticks lend themselves to a variety of decorative arrangements. You can fold a napkin tightly around them to make a neat, compact roll thin enough to push through a plain wooden napkin ring.

You can fold two opposite corners of a napkin to the center to make a long thin strip of fabric and simply knot it around the center of the chopsticks or you could place the chopsticks on top of a napkin folded into a neat parcel and tie them around with a slender twig of leaves. Ribbons and bows are less appropriate to the presentation of oriental meals, but flowers add a pretty and authentic finishing touch.

The arrangement of glasses on the table follows a similar convention to that applied to silverware. Glasses are placed above and to the right of the dinner plate, working from the outside in, in the order in which they will be used. Position a water glass farthest from the plate, a white wine glass next to it, followed by a red wine glass, and nearest the plate, a small glass for port if you plan to pass the decanter always to the left after the meal.

If any course on the menu is to be eaten with the fingers, it is a thoughtful gesture to provide each person with a fingerbowl and provide an extra table napkin as a hand towel. Fingerbowls may be any china, glass, or earthenware cereal, dessert, or rice bowls. They are usually placed slightly above and to the left of the dinner plate, to prevent absent minded guests form mistaking them for a wine glass. Half- fill the bowls with warm water and for appearance’s sake, scatter a few rose petals on the surface, float a thin slice of lemon or lime.

Seating arrangements: The question of who sits next to whom, is a matter of etiquette on formal occasions. It may be better to separate the guests with shared interests during the meal if they are likely to indulge in an extended period of shop-talk, to the exclusion of their neighbours. Equally, if there is likely to be a clash of personalities, it is diplomatic to seat those concerned at a safe distance.

On formal occasions, it is usual for the host and hostess, to be seated at opposite ends of the table and for guests to be seated, male and female alternately, along the sides. When there are six or ten in the group and the company is equally divided, this arrangement works well. But when a host has a rectangular table has to give a dinner party for eight, the host or the hostess has to move only place around from the end of the table and for a senior guest to be asked to take that position. This situation does not arise, when seating is planned for a round table, although it is still advisable for a host and hostess to sit on opposite sides so that they can attend to the needs of the guests seated close to them.

Another way is to write place cards for each guest and to position them in advance of the meal. You can buy inexpensive miniature picture frames or you could make suitable frames by covering cards with gift wrap or furnishing braid.

Flower arrangements: flowers have such a long association with celebrations of all kinds, that is natural to think of them first when you are planning your table decorations. The choice of container as much as the flowers and foliate sets the tone of an arrangement. If you want to achieve perfect harmony between the table setting and a floral decoration, you may be able to use a spare piece of the tableware as a container. Some fruits and vegetables can be used as flower containers.

Candle decorations: The light of the candles on the table draws the guest’s concentration inward and creates a greater feeling of intimacy and togetherness.

Buffet Service: Usually used when large numbers of people must be served. Dishes are kept either on one side or on both the sides of the dining hall. Guests serve themselves from the buffet.Guests may then eat at one large table, several small tables or eat from a plate held in the hand while sitting or standing. The menu for a buffet must be chosen carefully. Food should be able to be eaten without having to cut them into bite sized pieces if no seating is available. When serving, serve from the left and clear from the right.

The American Table Setting :

The American Table Setting Napkin Placed to the left of the fork with the fold to the left. Sometimes placed under the forks or on the plate. If a salad fork is used, it is located to the left of the dinner fork. Dinner Fork is Placed to the left of the dinner plate. No more than three forks to the left of the plate. Keep Dessert Fork To the right of the larger dinner fork. Bread Plate should be just above the tip of the fork. A butter knife or spreader is placed horizontally on the bread plate. Bread should be broken into bite-sized pieces, not cut.

Dinner Plate is always located in the center of the place setting. While eating keep your knife and fork on the sides of the plate (or open).  Dinner Knife has to be the right of the plate. Sometimes there are multiple knives, perhaps for meat, fish and salad, in order of used from the outside in. Tea Spoon has to be on the right of the dinner knife. If you need to set your soup spoon down while dining, place it in the bowl.

Keep Water glass  above the tip of knife. Coffee Cup if needed can be brought at the time of service or place next to the water glass.

There are 6 rules in proper dinnerware placement:

1. Allow 20-24” for each place setting with the plate in the middle.
2. The rule of thumb:  the plate should be 1” from the table edge (use thumb).
3. Bread/butter plate—top left, above the salad plate.
4. Salad plate—lower left, above the napkin.
5. Soup bowl—on plate or separate.
6. Cup/saucer—separate or glassware.

There are 4 rules in proper flatware placement:

1. Also a rule of thumb—place items 1 to 1 1/2 ” from the table edge so that handles are lined up and the utensils are even with the plate.
2. Forks—to the left of the plate; dessert fork is sometimes placed above the center of the plate
   Knives, spoons—to the right of the
   plate; dessert spoon is sometimes placed above the center of the plate
3. Arrange flatware in order of use, from outside toward plate—(salad fork at the left of the dinner fork if the salad is the first course, otherwise, to the right of the dinner fork if the salad is served with dinner)
4. *Forks—tines up
   *Knives—sharp cutting edge toward plate
   *Spoons—bowls up
   *Butter knife—on bread/butter plate

Placement of the napkin:

• Left of the forks
• Center of the dinner plate or cover
• In the water goblet
• The napkin is placed so that when it is removed, it will not disturb any of the flatware!

References

1. M.A. Varghese, N.N. Ogale and K. Srinivasan, 2008, Home management, New Age International Publishers.
2. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954), Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co.,INC.
3. Anna Hong Rutt 1969, Home Furnishing, Wiley Eastern private limited, New Delhi
4. https://www.realsimple.com/holidays-entertaining/entertaining/how-to-set-a-table
5. emilypost.com/advice/table-setting-guides/

Assignment

1. Make prototype of formal and informal table settings with art paper and present in the class.
2. Collect information on methods of napkin folding and prepare a scrap book.

Write answers in brief

1. What are the equipments needed for table setting?
2. Write in brief the table setting for western style
3. Explain the Indian style of serving meals.
4. Explain the floor arrangement and accessories for table setting

Q.II Write short notes on

1. The buffet style
2. Table cloth and place mats
3. Selecting dishes

TABLE SETTING – REQUIREMENTS & ETIQUETTES

Arranging a table is a means of setting the scene for the meal and a way to express your own style, tastes and personality and mood. Style and mood of the setting are defined by the accessories and utensils to be used together.

Table equipment:

Chinaware, glassware, silver, miscellaneous wares.

China and porcelain: The synonymous terms china and porcelain refer to all china that is in any degree translucent. An entire piece may appear opaque because of its thickness, but if the edges or a thin fragment of it are translucent it is porcelain. There are three classes of porcelain: hard paste, soft paste and bone paste, which is medium.

Earthen ware and pottery: These are synonymous terms referring to entirely opaque wares. A broken piece of pottery shows the glaze like separate layer on outside and body more porous than porcelain.

Glass ware:  All glasses should be well balanced so that it is easy to drink from them. The weight and size of a glass affect the impression of delicacy or strength that it gives.

Silverware: The plate is just as comfortable to use, it looks exactly as well, it does not seem too good to use often, it does not entail worry as to its safety and it is less expensive.

Flat ware: A set of flatware usually consists of dinner knives, dinner forks, salad or luncheon forks, butter knives, tea spoons and soup spoons. Decoration should follow line of the object or should be played only at structurally important points, such as the base or top of an article.

Holloware: silver hollow ware has many advantages as well as disadvantages when compared with china. Silver hollow ware usually help to unify the table, as they repeat the colour and texture of silver flatware. The design of silver hollow ware should be chosen to conform to general style of dishes with which they are to be used. Salt and pepper shakers, cream pitchers, sugar bowls, covered vegetable dishes, tea and coffee pots, water pitchers, carafes and flower vases are some of the articles procurable in silver.

Miscellaneous wares:

Stainless steel: Next to silver, stainless steel is now the most used material for table flatware. It is used by families that must economize, by those who wish to save their silverware and also in areas where marsh gas or fumes blacken the silver quickly.

Aluminum, plastics and metals are other materials used for dishes.

Table cloths can play an important role in linking the various elements of a room into a harmonious scheme. The fabric can be used to link different styles of furnitures;  a modern, monochrome treatment of a traditional bird or flower design, made up into a simple square or rectangular cloth, helps harmonize modern chairs and antique occasional pieces. Table cloths can also add a real finishing touch to a room scheme when they are used to cover unsightly second hand tables or cheap, unfinished chipboard display tables.

Table cloths: If the dining table is a highly polished one as the center of attention in the room, need to be hidden under an all-enveloping cloth. If the table has a somewhat utilitarian appearance, can give it a stylish lift by spreading it with a cloth chosen to match the mood of the moment.  For eg: If the table is of the darkest polished oak and you want to present a light, bright and summery meal, a pretty floral or lace cloth may be more suitable than the use of placemats, which would leave an uncovered expanse of blackness of the table.

Using a tablecloth makes it easier to achieve a unified look, because it provides a continuous background against which you can arrange the necessities for dining and the decorations. For a formal occasion, a white or pale-coloured damask tablecloth is the traditional choice. It is something to do with the weight of the cotton and the way it drapes over the table corners; something to do with the subtle sheen in the weave and the way it adds to the sparkling effect of the flatware and glasses.

Other options for table cloth range from heavy, basket-weave cotton table cloths to light, openwork ones, from exquisite handmade lace cloths to cotton mixtures, which keep laundry fatigue to a minimum. You can also buy a length of furnishing fabric, with enough to make matching napkins, and simply machine or hand-stitch the edges. White, cream or pastel-coloured eyelet lace which can be used to set the table for lunch and dinner. To make a change, can set the cloth over a coloured underlay. This can be an inexpensive material that would show pink, green, coral-pink or whatever through the cut-work pattern to create an effect of coloured flowers. Another choice that has an air of formality, is an inexpensive machine-made lace bedspread, which can be laid directly on the table, or for a more colourful effect, over a solid coloured underlay.

Heavy cotton material with a thick self-coloured stripe is less formal than damask, cutwork, or lace but is practical and stylish, and it looks especially effective with plain, modern potter. Printed cottons or cotton-blemd fabrics can be used for a multitude of theme creations.

Place mats: Like tablecloths, placemats can match the mood of a variety of occasions, from a formal dinner party to a casual gathering of family and friends.  Choose from crisply starched linen or heavyweight cotton with a cut-thread pattern at the corners.  To add a touch of individuality, you could buy or make plain placemats and use fabric paints to create a stenciled design in one corner – a pineapple, leaves etc. and repeat it on matching napkins. Mats can be made as covers to slip over heat-resistant table mats. Make placemats with built-in heat resistance by lining them with a pad of washable quilting, machine or hand-stitched in place with criss-cross lines. Heat-resistant mats are both functional and decorative.

Table napkins: table napkins may be chosen to contrast or harmonize with the colours of the other decorations. Table napkins can be folded simply and presented as neat rectangles, squares or triangles, or pulled through a napkin ring and arranged with a twist for casual dinners. For formal dinners, table napkins of starched white or pastel-coloured linen or cotton can be fashioned into decorative shapes to resemble a water lily, a fan, and many other designs. Often a small gift, a flower, a placecard, or a pair of chopsticks is tucked into the folds of the napkin.

Flatware: flatware should be polished until it shines. Whether it is made of silver, silver plate, or stainless steel, the gleam and glisten of polished flatware can contribute significantly to the appearance of a table setting.

Glasses: sparkling glass, glinting in every shaft of sunlight or flicker of candle light, will add the perfect finishing touch to a table setting. Choose a style of glasses that harmonizes with the dishes and flatware. On formal occasions, you may set one glass for white wine, one for red wine and one for water. If you plan to offer brandy or liqueurs at the end of the meal, you can ask your guests their preference and set out the appropriate glasses as you bring in the tray of drinks.

Other Materials: Flowers are the most popular of all table decorations because of their loveliness. Although flowers are ordinarily placed in the centre of the table they may be put elsewhere. Interesting variations are a bouquet at each of the four corners of a square table or nosegray which is to be worn later, at each plate. A long narrow table may have all the flowers along one side and the covers along the other. Low arrangements are desirable as they do not obstruct the view.

Many special flower containers for tables are now on market. Those with curved lines look best on round tables. Some receptacles come in sections so that a smaller large arrangement can be made with different aggregates of parts. The sections can be separated and placed around a central arrangement of some kind or distributed on table.

Fruit or vegetables combined with seedpods or green leaves also make interesting table decorations, supply rich, warm colours that are especially pleasing in autumn and winter.

Table decorations frequently include candles, often in combination with flowers. Beautiful candlesticks and candelabra are available in silver, pewter, chromium, iron, pottery, glass, plastics or classic to the precise modern. Candle holders can also be improcardboard stripes of interesting shapes make effective holders. Sometimes amusing or beautiful little porcelain or glass figures of humans, birds, animals, or plants are combined with flowers for central table compositions. Paper decorations such as curls, laces, fringes, scrolls and festoons in white. Colour, silver or gold are sometimes needed to give delightful gay touch of festivity and artificiality. Arrangements of rose and white added life and beauty.

Etiquettes

1. In a restaurant as soon as you are seated, remove the napkin from your place setting, unfold it, and put it in your lap. Don’t clean the cutlery or wipe your face with the napkin. NEVER use it to wipe your nose! Once the meal is over, you too should place your napkin neatly on the table to the left of your dinner plate.
2. Wait until all are served at your table before beginning to eat. Do not start before this unless the host or hostess insists that you start eating.
3. Use Knife in right hand and fork in left hand for holding food. Always rest forks, knives, and spoons on the side of your plate or in the bowl.
4. Never place used silverware on the table or leave it in a cup or small bowl. A used soup spoon is left in a large soup plate or on the plate under the soup bowl. A used coffee spoon is placed on the saucer beneath the handle of the cup. Unused silver is left on the table.
5. Follow whatever dress code is requested on the invitation or suggested by the host / hostess. Arrive at least 10 minutes early unless otherwise specified.
6. Do not stretch across the table, crossing other guests, to reach food or condiments.
7. Do NOT talk with food in your mouth! This is very rude and distasteful to watch! Wait until you have swallowed the food in your mouth.
8. Once you have finished your food, don’t leave the table until the host asks you to. If you have to leave the table, ask for the permission from the people before leaving.
9. Place knife and fork on plate after using, knife with sharp edge facing in and fork with tines up (American) or down (Continental) and placed so they will not fall off the plate.
10. People from different countries and cultures have table manners that may be different from yours. Respect and accept people with other customs.

The Indian Table Manners And Etiquettes :

• The Indian Table Manners and Etiquettes Traditionally, Indian food is served on a rug on the floor and people are supposed to sit in a circle. In case you are using a table, let the eldest person sit first. The host is supposed to sit in a direction from where he can see everyone around him.  When everyone is seated, wait for the food to be served. You should not chatter unnecessarily with the people around you. Indian tradition does not emphasize on the use of cutlery which are considered to be a part of western culture, such as fork and knife. Indian food such as curries and gravies are enjoyed best when eaten with hands. Wash hands properly before starting as much of the food is eaten with hands, even if you are using basic cutleries such as spoon and fork. Wait for the eldest to start first. Even if you are starving don’t attack the food or eat hastily. It is considered disrespectful and a bad manner.
• You are not expected to use your left hand while eating. Even breads and chapattis are broken into pieces using the right hand alone. But you are supposed to transfer food from the common plate using your clean left hand. In north India it is not acceptable to stain your hands with gravies or curries, only fingertip it used to pick and gather food. However, in south India, you can take liberty to dip your hand up to your palms.  Don’t flood your plate with food. Finish your whole food before asking for more. Wasting food is considered disrespect to the host and the food. Don’t wash your hands in your plate or on the bay leaf and you are not expected to close the bay leaf- if you are in south India. Use a finger bowl (lemon and water) to wash your greasy hands.

References

1. M.A. Varghese, N.N. Ogale and K. Srinivasan, 2008, Home management, New Age International Publishers.
2. Harriet Goldstein and Veita Goldstein (1954), Art in Everyday Life, Fourth edition, Macmillan Publishing Co.,INC.
3. Anna Hong Rutt 1969, Home Furnishing, Wiley Eastern private limited, New Delhi
4. https://www.etiquettescholar.com › Dining Etiquette
5. https://www.ftd.com/blog/share/table-setting-rules
6. https://www.etiquettescholar.com/dining_etiquette/table_manners.html
7. https://www.etiquettescholar.com › Dining Etiquette › Table Manners
8. https://www.gentlemansgazette.com/table-etiquette-guide-informal-dining-manners/ 

Assignment

1. Collect information on table etiquettes followed in different countries.
2. Conduct a market survey and prepare a report on materials required for table setting-types and costs.